FRANKLIN: THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND OTHER WRITINGS ON POLITICS, ECONOMICS

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3 4211 ,USA 477 WilliamstownRoad,PortMelbourne, vic3207 ,Australia RuizdeAlarc ´ on 13 , 28014 Madrid,Spain DockHouse,TheWaterfront,CapeTown 8001 ,SouthAfrica http://www.cambridge.org C intheselection,introductionandeditorialmatterCambridgeUniversityPress 2004 Thisbookisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements, noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithout thewrittenpermissionofCambridgeUniversityPress. Firstpublished 2004 PrintedintheUnitedKingdomattheUniversityPress,Cambridge Typeface Ehrhardt 9 . 5 / 12 pt. System L A T E X 2 µ [ tb ] AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloguinginPublicationdata Franklin,Benjamin, 1706 3 1790 . [Selections. 2004 ] Franklin:theautobiographyandotherwritingsonpolitics,economics,andvirtue/edited byAlanHouston. p.cm. 3(Cambridgetextsinthehistoryofpoliticalthought) Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. isbn0521834961 3ISBN 0521542650 (pb.) 1 .Franklin,Benjamin, 1706 3 1790 . 2 .Statesmen 3UnitedStates 3Biography. 3 .United States 3Economicconditions 3To 1865 . 4 .UnitedStates 3Politicsandgovernment 3To 1775 . 5 .UnitedStates 3Politicsandgovernment 3 1775 3 1783 . 6 .Politicalculture 3 UnitedStates 3History 3 18 thcentury. 7 .Politicalscience 3Earlyworksto 1800 . 8 .Politicalscience 3UnitedStates 3History 3 18 thcentury. 9 .Virtue. 10 .Socialvalues. I.Houston,AlanCraig, 1957 3II.Title.III.Series. E 302 . 6 .F 7 A 22004 973 . 3 092 3dc 22 [B] 2004045103 isbn0521834961 hardback isbn0521542650 paperback © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Contents Acknowledgements page xi Introduction xiii Chronology xxxix Bibliographicalnote xlii Biographicalguide xlvii Anoteonthetexts li 1 TheAutobiography PartOne 1 PartTwo 58 PartThree 78 PartFour 139 2 PlanofConduct(July 3October 1726 ) 143 3 AModestEnquiryintotheNatureandNecessityofa Paper-Currency( 3 April 1729 ) 144 4 ApologyforPrinters( 10 June 1731 ) 159 5 RulesforaClubFormerlyEstablishedatPhiladelphia( 1732 ) 164 6 DialogueBetweenTwoPresbyterians( 10 April 1735 ) 167 7 ToJosiahandAbiahFranklin( 13 April 1738 ) 172 vii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Contents 8 AProposalforPromotingUsefulKnowledgeAmongthe BritishPlantationsinAmerica( 14 May 1743 ) 174 9 TheSpeechofMissPollyBaker( 15 April 1747 ) 177 10 PlainTruth:or,SeriousConsiderationsOnthePresentState oftheCityofPhiladelphia,andProvinceofPennsylvania ( 17 November 1747 ) 180 11 FormoftheAssociationandRemarksintowhichNumbers aredailyentering,fortheDefenceofthisCityand Province 4 4WithRemarksoneachParagraph ( 3 December 1747 ) 193 12 AdvicetoaYoungTradesman,WrittenbyanOldOne ( 21 July 1748 ) 200 13 ProposalsRelatingtotheEducationofYouthin Pennsylvania(October 1749 ) 203 14 ObservationsconcerningtheIncreaseofMankind,Peopling ofCountries,&c.( 1751 ) 215 15 ToJamesParker( 20 March 1751 ) 222 16 Rattle-SnakesforFelons( 9 May 1751 ) 226 17 ToPeterCollinson( 9 May 1753 ) 228 18 ToPeterCollinson(September 1753 3January 1754 ) 234 19 JoinorDie( 9 May 1754 ) 236 20 ReasonsandMotivesfortheAlbanyPlanofUnion (July 1754 ) 238 21 ToGovernorShirley(December 1754 ),withaPreface ( 8 February 1766 ) 256 22 PoorRichardImproved :FatherAbraham 9sSpeech ( 7 July 1757 ) 264 23 To ( 13 December 1757 ) 272 24 ToLordKames( 3 May 1760 ) 274 viii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Contents 25 OnthePriceofCorn,andManagementofthePoor ( 29 November 1766 ) 277 26 ToLordKames( 25 February 1767 ) 281 27 CausesoftheAmericanDiscontentsBefore 1768 ( 7 January 1768 ) 286 28 TheSomersettCaseandtheSlaveTrade( 20 June 1772 ) 294 29 RulesbyWhichaGreatEmpireMayBeReducedtoaSmall One( 11 September 1773 ) 295 30 AnEdictbytheKingofPrussia( 22 September 1773 ) 302 31 OnaProposedActtoPreventEmigration([December?] 1773 ) 307 32 ProposedArticlesofConfederation( 21 July 1775 ) 313 33 TheMoralsofChess(before 28 June 1779 ) 317 34 ToMadameBrillon:TheWhistle( 10 November 1779 ) 321 35 ToJosephPriestly( 8 February 1780 ) 323 36 ToJosephPriestly( 7 June 1782 ) 325 37 ToRichardPrice( 13 June 1782 ) 327 38 ToRobertMorris( 25 December 1783 ) 328 39 RemarksConcerningtheSavagesofNorth-America( 1783 ) 330 40 ToSarahFranklinBache( 26 January 1784 ) 336 41 InformationtoThoseWhoWouldRemovetoAmerica (February 1784 ) 341 42 ToBenjaminVaughan( 26 July 1784 ) 349 43 AttheConstitutionalConvention(June 3September 1787 ) 354 44 QueriesandRemarksRespectingAlterationsinthe ConstitutionofPennsylvania(November 1789 ) 364 45 OntheSlaveTrade( 25 March 1790 ) 369 Index 372 ix © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Acknowledgements TheholographmanuscriptofFranklin 9s Autobiography , hm9999 ,is reproducedbypermissionoftheHuntingtonLibrary,SanMarino, California.Selectionsfrom ThePapersofBenjaminFranklin arerepro- ducedbypermissionofYaleUniversityPress.TwopoemsbyFranklin 9s uncleBenjaminarereproducedbypermissionoftheAmericanAntiquar- ianSociety;Franklin 9sEnalspeechattheConstitutionalConventionis reproducedcourtesyoftheDivisionofRareandManuscriptCollections, CornellUniversityLibrary. QuentinSkinnerErstsuggestedthisedition.Hesubsequentlypro- videddetailedandinsightfulcommentsontheIntroduction,asdidDoug- lasAnderson,DonHerzog,StevePincus,NancyRosenblum,Shannon Stimson,andananonymousreviewer.RichardFisherofCambridgeUni- versityPresswasunfailinglysupportiveasthisprojectmatured.David SelbyassistedwiththeEnalstagesofresearch.KelseyandJamiehelped meappreciateFranklin 9scomplexroleinAmericanpopularculture.To allofthesefriends,colleagues,andrelations,Ioffermyheartfeltthanks. xi © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction BenjaminFranklin 9slife-storyislegendary.TheyoungestsonandEf- teenthchildofaBostontallowchandlerandsoapboiler,hereceivedonly twoyears 9formaleducationbeforebeingapprenticedtohisbrother,a localprinter.Butbythetimeofhisdeathhewasworld-famousforhis accomplishments.Awriterofwit,graceandintelligence,hecrafteda seriesofcomplexanddistinctliteraryvoices.Anexperimentalscientist, heconductedoriginalresearchonelectricity,waselectedtotheRoyal Society,andfoundedtheErstscientiEcsocietyinNorthAmerica.Aprac- ticalengineer,heinventedthelightningrod,bifocalglasses,andtheErst trulyefEcientwood-burningstove.Abornimprover,hefatheredtheErst subscriptionlibrary,theErstvolunteerEredepartment,andtheErstchar- ityhospital.ApoliticalleaderincolonialPennsylvaniaandrevolutionary America,hehelpeddrafttheDeclarationofIndependence,represented theUnitedStatesinnegotiationswithFranceandGreatBritain,and participatedintheConstitutionalConvention. Franklin 9spoliticalwritingsreFecthisengagementwiththiswider world.Hewasnotanabstractorsystematicthinker.Atnopointdidhe articulateadevelopedconceptionofjustice,ordefendatheoryofhuman nature.Andyet ThePapersofBenjaminFranklin 3nowinitsthirty-seventh volume,withnearlyadecadeofhislifestilltobecovered 3revealsamind ofextraordinarycriticalintelligence.Bytradeaprinter,Franklinactively participatedinthepublicsphereofnewsandcommunication.Hewrote toinFuenceopinionsandshapeevents,toentertainfriendsanddemolish enemies,toshareideasandattaincommercialsuccess.Headdressedtopics rangingfrommonetarypolicytosexualmores,andfromtheconduct ofbusinesstothesinsofslavery.Heemployedawidearrayofliterary xiii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction forms,includingjournalisticessays,popularbroadsides,publicletters, politicalpamphlets,scientiEctreatisesandbagatelles.Wellschooledin theuseofirony,satireandinvective 3hetaughthimselftowriteby mimingAddison 9s Spectator 3heunderstoodthevalueofagoodhoax, anddelightedintheconstructionofdramatic personae .SomeofFranklin 9s mostfamousproductionswere cauthored dbyEctionalcharacterslike SilenceDogoodandRichardSaunders. Facedwiththeseriches,scholarshavefounditdifEculttoagreeon Franklin 9scontributiontothehistoryofideas.Inscoresofmonographs hehasbeenvariouslycastasPuritan,Deistandatheist;asNewtonian empiricistandEnlightenmentrationalist;asdemocraticpopulistandlib- eralindividualist;aspetitbourgeoisandproto-capitalist;asprincipled pragmatistandopportunisticscoundrel.Americanpopularculturehas hadaneasiertimeofit.FranklinisbestknownasprophetoftheAmerican dream:ifyouworkhardandplaybytherules,thenyouwillsucceed. Powerandprivilegearethefruitofindustryandeffort,notbirthand ascriptivesocialroles.TheAmericandreamiscloselyassociatedwith someofPoorRichard 9smostfamousphrases: cApennysavedisapenny earned, d cTherearenogainswithoutpains, dand cEarlytobedandearly torise/Makeamanhealthywealthyandwise. dProofofthesemaximsis providedbyFranklin 9sownlife,whichafErmsthepowerofindividuals toshapetheirowndestiny. Franklin 9sappealhasnotbeenlimitedtoadults.Children 9sliterature 3 withtitleslike BenandMe:ANewandAstonishingLifeofBenjamin FranklinasWrittenbyHisGoodMouseAmos (inwhichAmosassumes responsibilityforFranklin 9sdiscoveriesandinventions), TheHatmaker 9s Sign (basedonaparableFranklintoldJeffersonwhenthelatterbalked atcongressionalattemptstoedittheDeclarationofIndependence)and FartProudly:TheWritingsofBenjaminFranklinYouNeverReadinSchool (whosetitlederivesfromFranklin 9ssatiricproposalforthescientiEcstudy ofFatulence, LettertotheRoyalAcademy ) 3testiEestothecomplexemo- tionalappealofFranklin 9slifeandwritings.Withthepossibleexception ofGeorgeWashington,noneofFranklin 9scontemporarieshasplayedas importantaroleinthemoralandpoliticalimaginationsofAmericans;and Washington,distantasCato,lacksFranklin 9simmediacyandintimacy. Ironically,Franklin 9simportancetoAmericanculturehasmadeitmore difEculttounderstandhim.Consider,forexample,D.H.Lawrence 9swell- knownattackonFranklin 9smoralandpoliticalideals.Inthe Autobiography Franklindescribedhis cboldandarduousprojectofarrivingatmoral xiv © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction perfection, dcompletewithatableofvirtuesandamethodforrendering themhabitual.Lawrencerailedagainstthe cbarbedwiremoralenclosure d thatFranklin criggedup d: cThesoulofmanisavastforest,andall Benjaminintendedwasaneatbackyard. dWhydidFranklindothis? cOut ofsheercussedness. dFranklin chatedEngland,hehatedEurope...he wantedtobeanAmerican, dandhiswholelifewasdedicatedto cdestroying theEuropeanpast. dLawrencewasabrilliantwriter,buthisargument restedondubiousinterpretativeprotocols.Likemanybeforeandafter,he reducedFranklin 9swritingstothe Autobiography andthe Almanack ;and likemanybeforeandafter,henaively(orperhapsmischievously)assumed thatthemanborninBostonwasidenticaltothecharactershecreated. 1 LawrenceidentiEedFranklinwiththedesiretobean cAmerican, dand this,too,isastumblingblock.DuringmostofFranklin 9slifetheterm cAmerican dreferredtoaninhabitantofageographicregion,whether NativeAmericanorBritishcolonist.Onlyinthewakeoftheimperial crisesofthe 1760 sandtherevolutionarystrugglesofthe 1770 sdidit begintoassumeuniquesocial,political,andculturalmeanings.Franklin certainlyplayedaroleintheconstructionofthetype cAmerican d 3not leastwhen,asministertoFrance,heplayedtoEuropeanvisionsofnatural geniusbywearingabeavercapandsimplewoolcoat.However,theidenti- EcationofFranklinwithAmericaconfusesfourpotentiallydistinctthings: thebiographicaloriginsoftheauthor,thesocialandpoliticalproblems thatdominatedhisthoughts,theaudienceheaddressed,andtheintellec- tualresourceshebroughttobearonthem.FranklinspenthisErsttwo decadesinBostonandthefollowingthreeinPhiladelphia.Throughout hislifehisattentionwasrivetedonthedilemmasofciviclifeinNorth America.ButduringlongmissionstoEngland( 1757 3 62 , 1764 3 75 )and France( 1776 3 85 )hewroteatlengthandwithgreatsophisticationfor Europeanaudiences.Andtherewasnothingparochialabouthisreading habits.Asachild,heeagerlyreadBunyan 9s Pilgrim 9sProgress ,Plutarch 9s Lives ,Mather 9s Bonifacius ,andDefoe 9s EssayonProjects ;asaladof 18 , inajournalkeptatsea,hedebatedMachiavelliandicta;asabudding politicaleconomistof 23 ,heexploitedtheargumentsofWilliamPetty andMarchamontNedham.Otherearlypapersindicatefamiliaritywith thepoetryofThomson,Waller,Cowley,Swift,andPope.Athisdeathhe leftalibraryof 4 , 276 volumesinEnglish,French,Italian,Latin,Spanish, andGerman. 1 D.H.Lawrence, cBenjaminFranklin, din StudiesinClassicAmericanLiterature (NewYork, 1923 ), 13 3 31 . xv © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction ThereisoneEnaldimensiontotheproblemsposedbyFranklin 9s cAmerican didentity,thistimehavingtodowithhistoriographicalcon- ventionsandcommitments.Beginninginthe 1960 s,widelysharedprin- ciplesgoverningthestudyofpoliticalthoughtcameunderEre.Rejecting approachesthatdrewtheirbearingsfromcanonicaltextsandteleological narratives,scholarssoughttorecoverthemeaningoftextsbyfocusing onthelinguisticcontextswithinwhichtheywerewritten.ThesigniE- canceofaclaimorutterancecouldbegraspedonlyinrelationshiptothe rangeofidiomsavailableatagivenpointintime.Shop-worndistinctions betweenphilosophyandhistory,orbetweenreasonandrhetoric,were calledintoquestion.Complexworksofliteraturewereplacedalongside analyticnonEction.InEnglandtheseargumentsledtovitalnewinter- pretationsoffamiliarEgureslikeMachiavelli,Hobbes,andLocke,and totherecoveryoflesswell-knownwriterslikeJamesHarrington.Inthe UnitedStatesthenewhistoriesofpoliticalthoughtcoincidedwith 3 andwerelargelyabsorbedby 3the crepublican dinterpretationofthe AmericanRevolution.Aslateas 1955 LouisHartzcouldarguethatthe keytoAmericanpoliticalthoughtwastobefoundinthewritingsofJohn Locke.Butbytheearly 1960 sscholarshaddiscovered,inthepamphlet literatureofthemid-eighteenthcentury,alanguageofvirtueandcorrup- tionthatappearedtobedistinctfromandintensionwiththeliberallogic ofrightsandinterests.Withinafewshortyears,theconceptofrepub- licanismdominatedthelandscape.Takingcuesfromthepath-breaking workofBernardBailyn,GordonWood,andJ.G.A.Pocock,historiansand politicaltheoristsrecasttheRevolutionasastruggletopreserverepubli- canlibertyagainstthehazardsofmoralandpoliticalcorruption. BenjaminFranklinisastrikinglymarginalEgureinthepagesofrepub- licanrevisionists,andplaysnogreaterroleintheworkofcriticsseekingto reassertaliberalparadigm.Thereisasimplereasonforthis:hewasneither a cclassicalrepublican dnora cLockeanliberal. dThoughconcernedwith virtueandcorruption,hedidnotassume 3asrepublicantheoryseemed torequire 3thatastableandsuccessfulpolityrestedonmoralpurityand selFessdevotiontothecommonwealth.Thoughdedicatedtoself-reliance andeconomicgrowth,hedidnotassume 3asLockeantheoryseemedto require 3thatpropertyrightswerenatural,orthatthelanguageofnatural jurisprudencefullycapturedthemeaningofmoderncitizenship. Thepresentvolumeprovidesthetextualfoundationforacomprehen- sivereassessmentofFranklin 9spoliticalthought.FreedfromtheconEnes xvi © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction oftheliberalism/republicanismdebate,itusesthetoolsofhistorical researchtoopennewquestionsandframenewarguments.Atthecenterof thiscollectionisFranklin 9s Autobiography [ 1 ], 2 thecleareststatementof hislifelongcommitmenttopersonalandcivicimprovement.Thelanguage ofimprovement 3ofgainandproEt,progressandperfection,increaseand expansion,beneEtandamelioration 3runsthroughoutFranklin 9swrit- ings.Itsmeaningwasnotsimply 3orevenprimarily 3economic.In aninFuentialessayontheemergenceof cthepeculiarmodernWestern formofcapitalism, dMaxWeberarguedthatFranklinexhibited,with calmostclassicpurity, dtheethosofrationalacquisition.Franklin 9sideal wasthe ccredit-worthyhonestman d;alloflifewassubordinatedtothe taskofearning cmoreandmoremoney dwhilescrupulouslyavoiding call spontaneousenjoymentoflife. dThisdutytoacalling,oncesanctiEedby Puritanism,hadlostitsreligiousbasisbyFranklin 9sday.But,according toWeber,itcontinuedtomobilizemenaroundtherationalpursuitof proEt. 3 ThereismuchinFranklintosupportthisview,from Advicetoa YoungTradesman ( cRememberthatTimeisMoney d[ 12 ])tothewildly popularprefacetothe 1758 editionof PoorRichardImproved [ 22 ].But theproductionofwealthwasonlypartoftheethosFranklinsoughtto cultivate.Hepraisedindustryandfrugality,buthealsocommendedthe pursuitofknowledge,thecultivationoffriendship,andthesatisfaction ofneed. cImprovement, dinFranklin 9slexicon,wasnothinglessthan shorthandforthecivilizingprocess.Itcapturedhisdeepestvaluesand commitments,andtiedhimtosomeofthemostimportantdebatesofthe eighteenthcentury. The Autobiography isarichandcomplexwork.Franklinintendedto reviewhisentirelife,butthenarrativewepossessisincompleteandends inhissixthdecade.Attheoutset,headmittedtomixedmotives:hewanted toprovideafamilyhistoryforhisson,tovindicatehisreputationfrom aspersionscastbyhisenemies,andtoindulgehisvanitybyrecounting hissuccessintheworld.Butthe Autobiography isalsoadeliberatework ofmoralandpoliticaleducation.Franklinthoughthislife cEttobeimi- tated. dAsheexplainedtoafriend,hehoped ctobeneEttheyoungreader, byshowinghimfrommyexample,andmysuccessinemergingfrom poverty,andacquiringsomedegreeofwealth,power,andreputation, 2 Numbersinbracketsrefertodocumentslistedinthetableofcontents. 3 MaxWeber, TheProtestantEthicandtheSpiritofCapitalism , 1920 ,trans.TalcottParsons (London, 2001 ), 47 3 78 . xvii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction theadvantagesofcertainmodesofconductwhichIobserved,andof avoidingtheerrorswhichwereprejudicialtome. d 4 Countlessreaders havedebatedthemeritsofFranklin 9sexample.Rushedintoprintimme- diatelyafterFranklin 9sdeath,the Autobiography hasbeenpublishedin overadozenmajorandliterallyhundredsofminoreditions.Translated intoFrench,Dutch,andGermaninthe 1790 s,ithasalsobeenrendered inSpanish,Italian,Danish,Portuguese,Swedish,Hebrew,Russian,and Chinese.ItisthemostimportantworkofitskindinAmericanletters,and oneofthemostinFuentialworksofworldliterature. PartTwoofthe Autobiography describesFranklin 9s cboldandarduous projectofarrivingatmoralperfection, dandprovidesthecleareststate- mentofamoraltheoryinallhiswritings.Butitisbyfarthebriefestofthe threemajorsectionsofthememoir.Thebiographicalmaterialsurround- ingitisequallyimportant:itisintendedtodemonstratethepractical validityofFranklin 9sinsightsandarguments.Asayouthof 18 Franklin traveledtoLondon.There,undertheinFuenceofdissolutefriendsand freethinkingideas,hecommittedanumberofpainfulindiscretions.Dur- ingthelongvoyagehomeheresolvedupona cPlanofConduct dthat hemight cliveinallrespectslikearationalcreature d[ 2 ].Hesettledon fourgoals:frugality,industry,honesty,andsincerity.Tohischagrinhe foundthetaskexceedinglydifEcult.Hischallengewasnotcognitive,but psychological.Thecontentofvirtuewaseasilydistilledfromthemany andvariedlistsheencounteredinhisreading.(Intheend,hesettledon thirteen.)Butthepracticeofvirtuewasanaltogetherdifferentmatter. Custom,habit,andinclinationrepeatedlytriumphedoverreasonandcon- viction.Legislatingmoralreform 3evenself-legislatingmoralreform 3 wasgenerallyineffective. Theintellectualfoundationforthis cdiscovery dlayinJohnLocke 9s An EssayconcerningHumanUnderstanding ,whichFranklinreadwithcare. AccordingtoLocke,moralfreedomrestsonthecapacityto c suspend the prosecutionofthisorthatdesire,aseveryonedailymayExperimentin himself. dEachmanhasthecapacityto cbedeterminedin willing byhis ownThoughtandJudgment d;but c 9tisnoteasiefortheMindtoput offthoseconfusedNotionsandPrejudicesithasimbibedfromCustom, Inadvertency,andcommonConversation. dLockearguedthatthesolution tothisproblemlayinakeenawarenessofman 9sutterdependenceonGod. Onlythethreatofpunishmentintheafterlifecouldleadmentoresist 4 ToBenjaminVaughan, 4 October 1788 ,inWritings 9 : 675 3 6 . xviii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction thetemptationsofpleasureinthepresent. 5 HereFranklinandLocke partedcompany.LockewasconcernedwiththestabilityandjustiEcation ofmoralclaims,Franklinwiththepsychologicalbasesofmoralaction. Thoughsomemightneedreligiousreasonstobemoral,notalldid[ 23 ]. Virtuewasamatterofhabit,andwhatFranklinneededwasanartor methodforsecuringthevirtueshepossessedandacquiringtheoneshe lacked.Tothisendhedevisedanovelsystemofmoralbookkeeping.Ina smallbookhedrewatablewitharowforeveryvirtueandacolumnfor eachdayoftheweek.Eachtimehecommittedafault,hemadeablack markintheappropriatesquare.Eachweekhefocusedhisattentiononone ofthevirtues.Overtime,throughrepetition,hehopedtoexperiencethe pleasureof cviewingacleanBook. dFranklinreadilyadmittedthatthis didnothappen.Buthesawimprovement,andattributedhislongand happylifetotheeffectsofhismethod.Laterinlifehecommendedthis systemanditscorrelatestofriendswhowerefacedwithdifEcultdecisions anderrantpassions[ 24 , 35 ]. Therhetoricalframeworkofthe Autobiography wouldhavebeenfamil- iartoFranklin 9saudiencefromseventeenth-andeighteenth-century moralandreligiouswritings.Amanofpromiseandabilityleadsalife ofdissipation;awakeningtothisfact,heisdisgustedwithhimselfand resolvestochange;throughreFectionandself-observation,hestruggles topurgehimselfofvice;overtime,withthehelpinghandofGod,he moveseverclosertoalifeofpurityandperfection.Thisnarrative,con- cernedwiththefateofasinglesoul,wasdeeplypersonal.Butitwastold forpublicpurposes,andnotsimplythatwemightlearnfromthestrug- glesandmistakesofothers.Theselfcreatedthroughself-disciplinewas anexemplaryself.Itrepresentedthequalitiesandcharacteristicsofalife infusedwithGod 9sgrace,anditexpressedGod 9sgracethroughbenev- olentactionintheworld.Goodworkswereanoutwardmanifestationof innerpiety.AsCottonMatherputitin AnEssayupontheGood 3another workthatFranklinreadwithcare 3 caworklessfaithisaworthlessfaith. d 6 Franklinoftenexpressedhismoralidealsinpreciselytheseterms: cWhatisServingGod? 9Tisdoinggoodtoman d. 7 Yetheprofoundlytrans- formedtheirmeaning.Franklin 9stableofvirtuesincludedtemperance, 5 JohnLocke, AnEssayconcerningHumanUnderstanding ,ed.PeterNidditch(Oxford, 1975 ), 2 . 21 . 47 , 2 . 21 . 48 , 2 . 13 . 27 . 6 CottonMather, Bonifacius:AnEssayupontheGood , 1710 ,ed.DavidLevin(Cambridge,MA, 1966 ), 29 . 7 PoorRichard, 1747 ,inPapers 3 : 105 ;seealso[ 7 ]. xix © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction silence,order,resolution,frugality,industry,sincerity,justice,modera- tion,cleanliness,tranquility,chastity,andhumility.Heconstructedno comparabletableofvices,butwecaninferthemfromhischaracteri- zationsofmenandevents.Thelistwouldbeshort:argumentativeness (youngBen),idleness(JamesRalph),indecision(LordLoudon).These habitsmademenunhappyandpreventedthemfromworkinginconcert withothers.Theywereknownbytheirconsequences,notbytheircoher- encewithdivinerevelation. cViciousActionsarenothurtfulbecausethey areforbidden,butforbiddenbecausetheyarehurtful,theNatureofMan aloneconsidered. d Moralitywasamatterofactionsandeffects,notmotivesandintentions. In 1749 PoorRichardopinedthat c Words mayshewaman 9sWit,but Actions hisMeaning. dSevenyearslaterhemadethepointwithFourish: AttheDayofJudgment,weshallnotbeasked,whatProEciency wehavemadeinLanguagesorPhilosophy;butwhetherwehave liv 9dvirtuouslyandpiously,asMenenduedwithReason,guided bytheDictatesofReligion.InthatHouritwillmoreavailus,that wehavethrownaHandfulofFlourorChaffinCharitytoaNest ofcontemptiblePismires,thanthatwecouldmusteralltheHosts ofHeaven,andcalleveryStarbyitsproperName.Forthenthe Constellationsthemselvesshalldisappear,theSunandMoonshall givenomoreLight,andalltheFrameofNatureshallvanish.Butour goodorbadWorksshallremainforever,recordedintheArchivesof Eternity. 8 Wesometimessaythatactionsspeaklouderthanwords,particularlywhen weseektoexposethehypocrisyofothers.Franklinhadsomethingdiffer- entinmind:moralidentityisestablishedby,andknownthrough,action. Properlyspeaking,itisnotamatterofwill,atleastnotasthewillwas understoodbyPuritanmoralists.Theselfwasaconstellationofpassions andinterests,integratedintoaproductivewholethroughgoodhabits. Purityofheartwasnotpossible,norwasitnecessarytomoralimprove- ment.Franklin 9scontemporary,JonathanEdwards,vehementlyrejected thisidea.AccordingtoEdwards,virtuousactionswerethefruitofvirtuous motives.Atheorybasedonhabitcouldnotexplainanoriginalcommit- menttovirtue( cHowcamehebythatvirtuefromwhichheactedwhen heErstbegantoreform? d 9 ).Norcoulditprotectmenagainstthesins 8 Papers 3 : 331 , 7 : 89 . 9 JonathanEdwards,Miscellany 73 ,quotedinNormanS.Fiering, cBenjaminFranklinand theWaytoVirtue, d AmericanQuarterly 30 ( 1978 ): 221 . xx © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction ofhypocrisyandself-deception.ButFranklindidnotparticipateinthe Puritaninnerdramaofguilt,self-doubt,andself-accusation.Nordidhe linger,withfearandtrembling,overbackslidingandtherecrudescenceof sin.Hetalliedhismistakes 3his cerrata d 3andsoughttochangehimself bychanginghishabits.Inthisefforthedidnotinsistthathismotivesbe pure.Ashequippedinthe Autobiography ,vanityandpridemadehima betterman. Franklincasthisbeliefsinlatitudinarianterms.Thisrejectionofdoc- trinalprecisionenabledhimtoaddressadifEcultpracticalproblem. PennsylvaniawasthemostheterodoxcolonyinBritishNorthAmerica. FoundedinthelateseventeenthcenturybyWilliamPenn,itwasorig- inallyintendedasa cholyexperiment, danasylumforQuakersand otherpersecutedpeople.InFranklin 9sdayQuakerswereintheminor- itybutdominatedPhiladelphiaciviclifeandcontrolledthecolonial Assembly.Inthecitytheywerejoinedby cnew dand cold dPresbyte- rians;inthebackcountrylivedlargenumbersofMennonites,Dunkers, andMoravians.ThePenns,nolongerQuaker,werethesinglelargest landholdersinPennsylvania,andretainedthepowersandprivilegesofthe Proprietors.Colonialprosperityandsecurityrequiredcooperationamong thesegroups,butdoctrinaldifferencesandsectarianconFictsoftenpre- cludedit.Franklinthoughtitpossibletoagreeonactionswithoutdelving toodeeplyintotheirjustiEcation.Civicimprovements 3pavingroads, providinghospitalsforthepoor,protectingagainstthemenaceofEre 3 weregoalsallcouldagreeto.Cooperationemergedfromtheattemptto solvespeciEcandlocalproblems.Instrumentalreasoningwasabondof unionamongmendividedbycustom,habit,andinclination. OnoneoccasionFranklin 9spracticalChristianitylandedhiminthelap ofdoctrinalcontroversy.Inlate 1734 theRev.Mr.SamuelHemphill,a PresbyterianclergymanordainedinIreland,wasinvitedtoassistJedediah Andrews,theageingministerofPhiladelphia.Franklinwasamember ofAndrews 9congregation,butdidnotattendhissermonsbecausehe foundthem cdry,uninterestingandunedifying,sincenotasinglemoral Principlewasinculcatedorenforc 9d,theirAimseemingtoberatherto makeusPresbyteriansthangoodCitizens. dHemphill 9ssermonswere altogetherdifferent.AccordingtoFranklin,theywerenot cdogmatical... butinculcatedstronglythePracticeofvirtueorwhatinthereligiousStile arecalledGoodWorks. dHerewasamanafterFranklin 9sownheart.But in 1727 theSynodofPhiladelphia,inanattempttounitewarringfactions, hadvotedthatallministerssubscribetotheWestminsterConfessionof xxi © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction Faith.Hemphill 9ssermonsdidnotmeetthisrequirement,andorthodox Presbyterians,ledbyAndrews,broughtchargesbeforetheSynodinApril 1735 .Hemphillwas ca New-LightMan ,a Deist ,onewhopreach 9dnothing but Morality . d FranklinsprangtoHemphill 9sdefenseinfourlongandimpassioned essays. 10 HeinstructedhisfellowcongregantsonthemeaningofChris- tianity.TheSermonontheMountwasan cexcellentmoralDiscourse. d Jesuspreachedthat cMoralityorVirtueistheEnd,FaithonlyaMeans toobtainthatEnd:AndiftheEndbeobtained,itisnomatterbywhat Means. dIndeed, cavirtuousHeretickwillbesavedbeforeawickedChris- tian. dImprovementcamethroughagradualtransformationofhabits,not anabruptconversionorturningofthesoul.Originalsinwas cabsurd, da cBugbearsetupbyPriests...tofrightandscareanunthinkingPopulace outofitsSenses. dBrandishinganti-clericalweaponsforgedbyEnglish Dissentersacenturybefore,Franklinwentontheoffensive.Thejudgment ofmanisfallible,anddisagreementoverdoctrineisinevitable.Reforma- tionisgradual,aspartialtruthsdisplacepartialerrors.Thefreeexchange ofideasisessentialtothisprocess.Everymanmustbepermittedto speakandbeheard.(Franklinusedthesamelogictodefendtherightand dutyofprinterstoprintunorthodoxideas[ 4 ].)Intheirpersecutingzeal thePresbyterianclergyemulated cthathellishTribunalthe Inquisition . d Theymustbehumbled,andtheirrepressivepowerdestroyed,through theassertionof cnaturalrightsandliberties dby cthebrethrenofthelaity. d Franklin 9sdefensefailedandHemphillwasforcedtoleavePhiladel- phia.Thelosswasbitterlypersonal.Hemphillsoughttoincitelivesof virtuousaction,andFranklinhadlongembracedthatgoal.Butinthe courseofdefendingHemphillFranklindiscoveredjusthowunorthodox hisideaswere.EvenfellowsupportersofHemphillweretroubledby Franklin 9santinomianappealtothelaity.Withinafewyearsheformed afastfriendshipwiththecharismaticevangelistGeorgeWhiteEeld,and insodoinghelpedtobringtheGreatAwakeningtoPhiladelphia.But FranklinrepeatedlyresistedWhiteEeld 9sinvitationtolivebyfaithand grace.AlifededicatedtodoinggoodwassanctiEed;fromareligiouspoint ofview,thatwassufEcient.Butwhatheldtogetherthehabitsofpersonal 10 Inadditionto ADialogue (April 1735 ),reprintedhere[ 6 ]: SomeObservationsontheProceedings againstTheRev.Mr.Hemphill (July 1735 ); ALettertoaFriendintheCountry (September 1735 ); ADefenceOftheRev.Mr.Hemphill 9sObservations (October 1735 ),inPapers 2 : 37 3 125 . Allquotationsinthisparagrapharefromthesetracts. xxii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction improvement?Whatsocialformsandpoliticalinstitutionswereappro- priatetocivicimprovement?Andhowwerethesegoalsheldtogether? FromanearlyageFranklinhada cprojectingpublicSpirit. dHesaw enormousbeneEtsinorganizedandenlightenedcollectiveaction.Ashe putitinhisproposalforacharityhospital, cTheGoodparticularMen maydoseparately...issmall,comparedwithwhattheymaydocollec- tively,orbyajointEndeavourandInterest. d 11 Franklin 9sdescriptionof theErstsubscriptionlibraryisparadigmatic.ThemembersofFranklin 9s Juntowereavidreaders,butashumbletradesmentheycouldnotafford manybooks.Franklinsuggestedthattheypooltheirresourcesina ccom- monLibrary. dTheydidso,butquicklydiscoveredthattheircombined collectionwasmuchsmallerthanexpected.Worseyet,overtimethefew bookstheyhadweremistreatedandmislaid.Afteroneyear,theexper- imentwasended.Itwasinresponsetothiscrisisofthecommonsthat Franklin csetonfoot dhis cErstProjectofapublicNature,thatfora SubscriptionLibrary. dFiftysubscribersagreedtofundthelibraryfor Eftyyears;listsweredrawnandbookswereordered;hourswereset, andsubscriberswerepermittedtoborrowbooksonlyiftheypromised topayaEneforvolumesunreturned.Franklinproudlyreportedthat ctheinstitutionsoonmanifesteditsutility dandwasimitatedinother townsandprovinces. cTheseLibrarieshaveimprov 9dthegeneralCon- versationoftheAmericans,madethecommonTradesmenandFarm- ersasintelligentasmostGentlemenfromotherCountries. dAnd cper- haps, dFranklinadded,they chavecontributedinsomedegreetothe StandsogenerallymadethroughouttheColoniesinDefenceoftheir Privileges. d FranklinwasequallysuccessfulingettingthestreetsofPhiladelphia pavedandswept.Inwetweatherunpavedstreetsbecamequagmires;in dryweathertheywereadirtynuisance.Findinga cpoorindustriousman d whowaswillingtoundertakethelabor,Franklin cwroteandprinteda PapersettingforththeAdvantages dofhiringhimattherateofsixpence perhousepermonth.Theagreementwasunanimouslysubscribedto,and calltheInhabitantsoftheCityweredelightedwiththeCleanlinessofthe Pavementthatsurroundedthemarket. dThis craisedageneralDesireto havealltheStreetspaved,andmadethePeoplemorewillingtosubmitto aTaxforthatpurpose. d 11 cAppealfortheHospital, d 8 August 1751 ,inPapers 4 : 150 . xxiii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction SomemaythinkthesetriFingMattersnotworthmindingorrelating, butwhentheyconsiderthattho 9DustblownintotheEyesofa singlePersonorintoasingleShoponawindyDay,isbutofsmall Importance,yetthegreatNumberoftheInstancesinapopulous CityanditsfrequentRepetitionsgiveitWeightandConsequence, perhapstheywillnotcensureveryseverelythosewhobestowsome AttentiontoAffairsofthisseeminglylowNature.HumanFelicityis producednotsomuchbygreatPiecesofgoodFortunethatseldom happenasbylittleAdvantagesthatoccureveryDay. Happiness,likecharacteritself,wasbuiltslowlyandpiecemeal.Itrequired self-disciplineandtheabilitytoidentifywithproperobjectsofdesireand ambition[ 34 ]. NotallFranklin 9sprojectswereconEnedtothe clittleAdvantages dof everydaylife.In 1747 heledtheformationoftheAssociation,aprivate militiathatenrolled 10 , 000 Pennsylvanianstodefendthecolonyagainst FrenchandSpanishprivateers[ 10 , 11 ].Asamiddlecolonyremoved fromthecoast,Pennsylvaniahadbeenrelativelyinsulatedfromtheimpe- rialconFictsofthe 1730 sand 1740 s.Theninthefallof 1747 rumors ofanattackuptheDelawareRiverbegancirculating.Colonistsgrew anxious,buttheAssembly 3dominatedbyQuakers 3refuseddefensive preparations.Workingwithassociates,Franklincampaignedtocreatea broadbaseofsupportfordirectaction.Though cthewholeProvince d was coneBody,unitedbylivingunderthesameLaws,andenjoyingthe samePrivileges, dPennsylvaniansweredividedbyregional,religious,and classloyalties.Someofthesedifferencescouldnotbeeasilytranscended. The creligiousScruples doftheQuakerspreventedthemfromtaking defensivemeasures.Richmerchants,consumedbyspite,refusedtotake aleadbecauseinsodoingtheymighthelptheQuakers. cMostunhappily circumstancedindeedarewe,themiddlePeople,theTradesmen,Shop- keepers,andFarmersofthisProvinceandCity! dFranklinremindedhis audiencethat c Protection isastrulyduefromtheGovernmenttothePeo- ple,as Obedience fromthePeopletotheGovernment. dIftheAssemblywas unwillingtodefendPennsylvania,thenitoughtnottoobjectifthepeople tookmattersintotheirownhands. cAllwewantisOrder,Discipline,and afewCannon. d TheAssociationwasanextraordinaryexperiment.Soldiers 3eachof whomsignedthe FormofAssociation 3weredividedintocompanieswhose socialcompositionwasintentionallymixed: c 9Tisdesignedtomixthe GreatandSmalltogether,forthesakeofUnionandEncouragement. xxiv © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction WheredangerandDutyareequaltoAll,thereshouldbenoDistinction fromCircumstances,butAllbeontheLevel. d(FiftyyearslaterFranklin usedthesameargumenttosupportproportionalrepresentationinthe UnitedStatesCongress[ 43 ]andopposetherepresentationofproperty inPennsylvania 9supperhouse[ 44 ]. cTheCombinationsofCivilSociety arenotlikethoseofaSetofMerchants. d)Intheircompanies,soldiers directlyelectedtheirofEcers.Franklinhopedthatthisarrangement,when combinedwithrotationinofEce,wouldensuretheselectionofgoodmen andfosterincentivestoperformwell. Orderanddisciplinerequiredplanning,butcannonswereanaltogether differentmatter.Soldierswereresponsiblefortheirownguns,butcannons wereexpensiveandexceededthecapacityofmostindividuals.Franklin addressedthisproblembysellingticketstoalottery.Pennsylvanianswere familiarwiththedevice:lotterieshadbeenusedinEnglandsincethedays ofQueenElizabeth;andthoughopposedbyQuakersonmoralgrounds, theywereusedthroughouttheeighteenthcenturytofundlarge-scale publicandprivateventures.Indeed,priortothedevelopmentofastable bondmarket,lotterieswereanessentialmechanismforraisingcapitalin colonialAmerica.ButFranklin 9suseofalotteryisparticularlystriking becauseitcalledontheviceofcupiditychanneledthroughagameof chancetofundtheeffortsofcitizen-soldiers. TheAssociationwassuccessfulinallbutoneregard:itwasanexpres- sionof cthepeopleoutofdoors, dandassuch 3asanextra-legaland extra-politicalorganization 3itdrewtheireofPennsylvania 9sPropri- etors.ThomasPennthoughttheAssociationlittlelessthan caMilitary CommonWealth, dandworriedthatFranklinhadbecome caSortof TribuneofthePeople. dHewas clicentious. dHewasa cleveller. dHewas, inshort,a crepublican. d 12 Franklin 9sabilitytothinkofcivicneedsinpolitical-economicterms pointstoaEnalcontextforhisthought.Atpreciselythemomentwhen Franklinframedhis cPlanofConduct, dinpreciselytheplacewherehehad committedhisindiscretionsandmadehisself-discoveries,menofletters wereengagedinaheateddebateovertherelationshipbetweenmoralphi- losophyandpoliticaleconomy.In TheFableoftheBees 3printedinathird andrevisededitionin 1724 ,justasFranklinlandedinLondon 3Bernard Mandevillearguedthatsocietywasanaggregationofself-interestedindi- viduals,boundtogethernotbycivicdevotionormoralrectitudebutbythe 12 ThomasPenn,quotedinPapers 3 : 186 . xxv © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction tenuousbondsofenvy,competition,andexploitation.DuringhisErsttrip toLondonFranklinmetMandeville 3whomhefounda cmostfacetious, entertainingcompanion d 3andparticipatedintheintellectuallifeofclubs andcoffee-houses.Inthesesettingsheencounteredmensteepedinthe booksandessayshehadabsorbedasaboy:Addison 9s Spectator ,Trenchard andGordon 9s Cato 9sLetters ,Shaftesbury 9s Characteristics ,Steele 9s Tatler , Defoe 9s EssayonProjects . ThecontroversysurroundingMandeville 9s Fable waspartofabroad debateoverthelanguageofsociabilityandthelogicofcommercialsoci- ety.Allpartiesacceptedthathumanswerecapableofimprovement,and thattheweaknessesofindividualsweretobeovercomethroughcombi- nationwithothers.Butwhatenabledhumanstocooperate?Whatties heldthemtogetherincollectiveendeavors?Itwasherethattheargu- mentwasjoined.Christianmoralistsinvokedloveandthebondsofan inclusivechurch.Sharedvaluesandpracticeswerethecementofsocial order.Machiavelliansappealedtothepowerofnecessity,imposedbythe institutionalconstraintsofawell-orderedpolity.Sumptuarylaws,mili- taryservice,andastrongcivilreligionovercamethedivisiveeffectsof privateinterests.Athirdgroup,concernedwiththeemergenceofcom- mercialsociety,foundtheseoptionspoliticallyimplausibleandmorally unpalatable,andsoughtinsteadtoexplaintheemergenceofcooperative socialrelationsthroughthepowerofneedsandinterests.Humansjoined togetherbecausetheywereusefultoeachother.Throughthereciprocal exchangeofgoodsandservicesmenacquiredtheskillsneededtosustain andnavigatethecomplexrelationsofacommercialsociety. Franklinembracedtheclaimthatthebondsofcooperationwereforged ontheanvilofutility.ButhispracticalcontextwasNorthAmerica, notGreatBritain,andthecoloniesofhisyouthlackedtheinstitutional densityofthemothercountry.Therewerefewclubsandcoffee-houses forenlightenedconversation,nosocietiestofosternaturalphilosophy. Commercialrelationswereunstableandunevenlydistributed.Regional differenceshinderedcommonundertakings.FacedwiththesedeEcits, Franklinwasforcedtoimprovise.Thedebateovercommercialsociety providednewtoolsforthinkingaboutgrowthandchange.Returningto NorthAmericain 1726 ,Franklindiscoveredthatunderdevelopmentpre- sentednovelopportunitiesforenlightenedaction.Aswassooftenthecase, Franklin 9sinterventionsincomplexdebatestooktheformofincidental tractsandpracticalproposals. xxvi © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction Franklin 9sErstpoliticalpamphletconcernedthemonetarypolicyof Pennsylvania[ 3 ].Seventeenth-centurycolonialeconomieswereplagued byashortageofcirculatingmediaofexchange.Goldandsilverwere extremelyscarce:mercantilistpoliciesledParliamenttoprohibitthe exportofcointothecoloniesin 1695 ,andEnglishcreditorsgenerally requiredbalance-of-tradepaymentstobemadeinthefewcoinsthat couldbefound.Attimesthecoloniescameclosetooperatingonabarter basis.ThiswasmassivelyinefEcient,andposedsubstantialobstaclesto development.Beginningin 1690 ,colonialgovernmentssoughttoresolve thisliquiditycrisisbyissuingpapermoneyintheformofbillsofcredit. PennsylvaniaErstdidsoin 1723 ,andthesuccessofthatventureledtoa renewalin 1726 .Theseexperimentspleasedmany,especiallymerchants anddebtors;butbecausetheexpansionofthemoneysupplywasaccompa- niedbyinFation,itdismayedlandownersandcreditors. AModestEnquiry wasFranklin 9sattempttoinFuencetheoutcomeofthisdebate. AccordingtoFranklin, cCommerce,ortheExchangeofoneCom- modityorManufactureforanother,ishighlyconvenientandbeneEcialto Mankind dbecauseiteliminatestheinefEcienciesandinstabilitiesofbarter exchange.Moneyissimplyasociallyagreed-uponmediumofexchange, andaplentifulmoneysupplyenablesefEcientmarketinstitutionsto develop.Insodoingitspursimmigration,whichservesasastimulus tocontinuedgrowth.Scarcemoney,bycontrast,frustratescommercial exchangeandencouragesrecoursetobarter.Pricesincrease,thevalueof commoditiesvaries,laborisdiscouraged,andpopulationisdepressed. ManyoftheseideaswerederivedfromWilliamPetty 9s TreatiseofTaxes . Franklin 9scontributionlayinhisexplicitattentiontothepoliticaldeter- minantsofeconomicdevelopment.Propertyrightswereconventional,not natural[ 38 ].IncolonialPennsylvaniatherewereclassesofmenwhodid notfavorcommercialdevelopment. cMenwillalwaysbepowerfullyinFu- encedintheirOpinionsandActionsbywhatappearstobetheirparticular Interest, danditwastheinterestofthosewhoproEtedfrominefEciency 3 theverywealthy,moneylenders,andlawyerswhobuilttheirbusinesson failedcontracts 3tokeepmoneyscarce.Thesemenandtheirinterests wererepresentedintheAssembly.Thedynamicsofelectoralpoliticsled toFuctuatingmonetarypolicies;this,inturn,exacerbatedPennsylvania 9s economicwoes.Thekeytocommercialgrowthwaspoliticalintegration. TheFuidandunderdevelopednatureofcolonialeconomiesprovides onecontextforunderstandingsomeofPoorRichard 9smaxims.The xxvii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction populationofBritishNorthAmericawasgrowingrapidlybutwasstill highlydispersed.Commercialexchangeprimarilyoccurredinlocalset- tingswherethestabilityoftransactionsrestedonpersonalcharacter,not impersonalmarketinstitutions.Inthe Autobiography Franklinobserved that cinordertosecuremyCreditandCharacterasaTradesman din Philadelphia, cItookcarenotonlytobein Reality Industriousandfrugal, buttoavoidall Appearances totheContrary. dThiswasnotaconfession 3 Franklinwasunembarrassedbyhissuccessatperformingarole 3buta statementofnecessity.Commercialsuccessrestedonpersonalreputation, andreputationwasamatterofappearance,oflivinguptotheexpectations ofanaudience.Doingsowasnot cnatural d;itwashardwork,andrequired extraordinaryself-discipline[ 17 , 42 ].Franklin 9sharshcriticismsofthe Englishpoorlawstemfromhisbeliefthatpublicassistanceundermined theveryqualitiesofcharacterhethoughtessentialtothedevelopment ofastablemarket[ 25 ].Inthiscontext,Weber 9sanalysisisilluminating. Franklincalledoncoloniststosubordinatetheirdesirestoaneconomic ccalling. dPoorRichard 9sethosofindustryandfrugalitywasastrategic responsetothechallengesofaneconomicallybackwardsociety. Duringthelate 1760 s,industryandfrugalitywerealsoweaponsin thegrowingimperialconFict.AstheBritishEmpirewasincreasingly conceivedincommercialterms,sorestraintoftradewasthoughttobe aneffectivebargainingtool.Thenon-importationagreementsofthelate 1760 sweredesignedtoinFuenceBritishpolicybycreatingacrisisamong Englishmerchants.Insodoingtheymadetheconsumptionpatternsof ordinaryAmericansamatterofstrategicconcern. Prosperityandeconomicdevelopmentwereimportantgoals,butthey werenotFranklin 9sonlygoals.ConsidertheJunto,the cclubformutual improvement dthatFranklinandhisPhiladelphiafriends 3printers, scriveners,shoemakers,andjoiners 3formedin 1727 .MeetingonFri- dayevenings,membersoftheJuntoprovidedmutualsupport,exchanged informationanddiscussedmoral,political,economicandscientiEctopics. Amongthetopicstheyhandledwere: WhetherMenoughttobedenominatedGoodorillMenfrom theirActionsortheirInclinations? IftheSovereignPowerattemptstodepriveaSubjectofhisRight, (orwhichisthesameThing,ofwhathethinkshisRight)isitjustiEable inhimtoresistifheisable? DoestheImportationofServantsincreaseoradvancetheWealth ofourCountry? xxviii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction WhencecomestheDewthatstandsontheOutsideofaTankard thathascoldWaterinitintheSummerTime? 13 FranklinbraggedthattheJunto 9sdebateswere cconductedinthesincere spiritofinquiryafterTruth,withoutFondnessforDisputeorDesireof Victory. dThisaspirationmaynotalwayshavebeenachieved;toencourage goodmanners,smallEneswereimposedforuncivilconduct. TheJuntometfornearlyfortyyears,andwas,inFranklin 9sownopin- ion, cthebestSchoolofPhilosophy,Morals,andPoliticsthatthenexisted intheProvince. dItwasalsoahard-headedpracticalinstitution,com- biningmoralupliftandself-helpinroughlyequalproportions.Ateach meetingmembersaskedthemselvesquestionslike: Hathanycitizeninyourknowledgefailedinhisbusinesslately, andwhathaveyouheardofthecause? Haveyoulatelyheardanymember 9scharacterattacked,andhow haveyoudefendedit?[ 5 ] TheeducationprovidedbytheJuntowasEne-tunedtotheneedsand interestsoftradesmenconfrontingthecomplexandchangingworldof colonialBritishNorthAmerica.Lackingpatronsanddisparagingmasters, Franklinandhisassociatesturnedtoeachotherforhelp.Improvement wasacollectiveprocess,restingonthecharacteroftheparticipantsand thequalityoftheirinteractions. TheJuntowastheErstofmanyeducationalinstitutionsFranklin founded.In 1743 ,inordertoaddresstheimbalanceofeconomicdevelop- mentandculturalopportunityinNorthAmerica,heproposedwhatlater becametheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety[ 8 ]. cTheErstDrudgeryof SettlingnewColonies,whichconEnestheAttentionofPeopletomere Necessaries,isnowprettywellover, dwroteFranklin. cTherearemanyin everyProvinceinCircumstancesthatsetthematEase,andaffordLeisure tocultivatetheEnerArts,andimprovethecommonStockofKnowledge. d Butowingto ctheextentoftheCountrysuchPersonsarewidelysepa- rated,andseldomcanseeandconverseorbeacquaintedwitheachother, sothatmanyusefulParticularsremainuncommunicated,diewiththe Discoverers,andarelosttoMankind. dTheSocietywastoprovidean institutionalbondbetweenindividualscholars,holdingregularmeetings anddistributingcopiesofcommunications.Itssubjectwasanythingand everything cnew d: callnew-discoveredPlants, d cNewMethodsofCuring 13 cProposalsandQueriestobeAskedtheJunto, 1732 , dinPapers 1 : 259 3 64 . xxix © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction orPreventingDiseases, d callphilosophicalExperimentsthatletLightinto theNatureofThings,tendtoincreasethePowerofManoverMatter,and multiplytheConveniencesorPleasuresofLife. dAselectricianandnatu- ralphilosopher,ofcourse,Franklinwasoneofthemostimportantsources ofnewknowledgeintheeighteenthcentury.ButcuriosityandFexibility werenotrestrictedtoscience.In 1749 FranklinhelpedfoundthePhiladel- phiaAcademy(thefutureUniversityofPennsylvania)[ 13 ].Hishope,he explainedtwoyearslater,wasthatyouthmight ccomeoutofthisSchool EttedforanyBusiness,CallingorProfession. dButfromthestarthewas engagedinafeveredbattleoverthecurriculum.Somefavoredaclassical education,butFranklinthoughtthisanachronistic. cThereisinmankind anunaccountablePrejudiceinfavourofancientCustomsandHabitudes, whichinclinestoaContinuanceofthemaftertheCircumstances,which formerlymadethemuseful,ceasetoexist. dSuchwasthehabitofteaching GreekandLatin,inpreferencetoEnglish;havingoutlivedtheirutility, theselanguages 3 cthequackeryofliterature d 3survivedaslittlemore thanamarkofwealthandbreeding. 14 Finally,considerFranklin 9smostinFuentialworkofsocialanalysis,his 1751 ObservationsconcerningtheIncreaseofMankind [ 14 ].Inthisbrief treatisehemadetwopredictionsthatprovedremarkablyaccurate:that thepopulationoftheUnitedStateswoulddoubleeverytwenty-Eveyears, andthatthepopulationofNorthAmericawouldoutstripthatofGreat Britainwithinahundredyears.ThesigniEcanceofthesepredicationslay inawidelysharedassumptionoflateseventeenth-andearlyeighteenth- centurypoliticaleconomy,thatthekeytopublicprosperityandnational independencelayinagrowingpopulation. Ifpopulousnesswasthekeytoprosperity,thentheeighteenth-century Anglo-Americanworldsufferedanembarrassmentofriches.Thecom- binedpopulationoftheBritishIslesandmainlandNorthAmericagrew fromroughly 8 . 4 millionin 1700 to 13 . 3 millionin 1770 .Thisgrowth wasunevenlydistributedinspaceandtime,anditsimpactwasoften devastating.InScotlandandIrelandlandshortagesdrovethousandsinto poverty,andspurredwavesofemigrationinthedecadespriortotheRev- olution.FromGermanycamemanymore,pushedbywarandpulledby thepromiseofabetterlife.Thesechangeswereunexpectedandonly 14 cIdeaoftheEnglishSchool, d 1749 ,inPapers 4 : 108 ; cObservationsRelativetotheIntentions oftheOriginalFoundersoftheAcademyatPhiladelphia, d 1789 ,inWritings 10 : 29 3 31 ; cExcerptsfromthePapersofDr.BenjaminRush, d PennsylvaniaMagazineofHistoryand Biography 29 ( 1905 ): 27 . xxx © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction dimlyunderstood,andchallengedthecapacitiesofbasicsocialandpolit- icalinstitutions.Parliament,fearingdepopulationandeconomicdevas- tation 3alaborshortagewoulddriveupthepriceofwages,rendering Britishmanufacturesuncompetitiveontheworldmarket 3soughttostop emigrationfromBritainandimposestrictlimitsonAmericaneconomic development. Franklinskeweredmoralobjectionstopopulationgrowthinoneofhis mostfamoushoaxes, TheSpeechofMissPollyBaker [ 9 ].Inthe Observations heturnedtodemography.Theprimarylimittopopulationgrowthwas theavailabilityoffreeland.Therewas cnoBoundtotheproliEcNature ofPlantsorAnimals,butwhatismadebytheircrowdingandinterfering witheachothers 9MeansofSubsistence. dThismeantthattheoriesand policiesdevisedfor cfullsettledoldCountries,asEurope, dwereunsuited to cnewCountries,asAmerica. dItalsomeantthatpopulationvaried withstagesofeconomicdevelopment.WhenErstdiscovered,America wasfullysettled 3butbyhunters,nothusbandmen.Theintroduction ofagriculturebyEuropeanscreatedecologicalspaceforapopulation explosion.Moreover,thedistinctstagesofdevelopmentinEnglandand Americaenabledthemtocooperateratherthancompete.Manufacturing reliedonanoversupplyoflabor.ThesheersizeoftheNorthAmericanland massensuredthatitwouldremainagriculturalformanygenerations;the abundanceofuncultivatedlandmademanufacturingunproEtable.And whilelandinNorthAmericaprovidedrefugeformanyapoorIrishor Scotchfarmer,itproducednonetdrainonthepopulationoftheBritish Isles. cWhatanAccessionofPowertothe British EmpirebySeaaswell asLand!WhatIncreaseofTradeandNavigation! d Franklin 9sanalysisoftherelationshipbetweenlandandpopulation gavehimconEdencethatthecontinentwouldbeoccupied.Butby whom?In cRattle-SnakesforFelons d[ 16 ]hemockedtheBritishprac- ticeoftransportingcriminalstothecolonies.Slavesrepresentedamuch largeradditiontothepopulationofNorthAmerica;butaccordingtothe Observations ,slaveryconsumed,ratherthanproduced,lives.Franklin 9s sharpestcommentsweredirectedatGermanimmigrants: cWhyshould thePalatineBoorsbesufferedtoswarmintoourSettlements...Why shouldPennsylvania,foundedbytheEnglish,becomeaColonyof Aliens , whowillshortlybesonumerousastoGermanizeusinsteadofourAngli- fyingthem? dPennsylvaniaGermanspossessedastrongworkethic,but theyrefusedtobeculturallyassimilated:theysupportedGermanprinting houses,patronizedGermanstores,andtaughttheirchildreninGerman. xxxi © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction Evenmorethreatening,theyoutnumberedtheEnglishinmanycounties andcarriedallbutafewelections.Theypossessedapotentcombination ofculturaldistinctnessandpoliticalclout[ 17 ].Franklinwasnotalonein theseworries;manuscriptcopiesofthe Observations wereeagerlyreadby friendsandpoliticiansonbothsidesoftheAtlantic.Franklinembraced proposalstoestablishfreeEnglishschoolsinGermancommunities,and torequirethatalllegaldocumentsbewritteninEnglish,andthatall ofEceholdersbecompetenttospeakEnglish.Butherejecteddraconian suggestionsthatGermanprintinghousesbesuppressed: cTheirfondness fortheirownLanguageandMannersisnatural:itisnotaCrime d[ 18 ]. ThepoliticaldivisivenessofFranklin 9slanguageandpoliticalprograms wasevidenttohiscontemporaries.Whenhepublishedthe Observations in 1760 ,heleftoutthesectionstreatingGermanimmigrants.Copiesof theoriginalmanuscriptsurvived,however,andwerereprintedduringthe Assemblyelectionof 1764 inanattempttoturnGermanvotersagainst him.Franklinprofessednottounderstandthefuss,buthefeltthesting ofelectoraldefeatnonetheless. By 1754 Franklinhadshiftedhisattentiontothecontinentasawhole andtotheuniquethreatposedbytheFrench.Successfulexpansionofthe BritishEmpirerequiredpoliticalcooperation;butintercolonialconFict wasendemic,leavingthecoloniesvulnerabletoFrenchpredation[ 15 ]. Franklin 9s cAlbanyPlan dof 1754 soughttoresolvethiscolonialsecurity dilemmabycreatingafederalunioninNorthAmerica[ 20 ].AGeneral Council,explicitlymodeledontheHouseofCommons,representedthe people;aPresidentGeneralprovidedalinktothecrown.Theprimary purposeoftheunionwouldhavebeentomanagethewesternfrontierof theEmpirebyregulatingtheIndiantradeandsupervisingtheformation ofnewcolonies.Throughfrequentmeetings,Franklinhopedthatthe colonistswouldlearntoconsiderthemselves cnotassomanyindependent states,butasmembersofthesamebody. d Franklin 9sprojectsbroughthimintodiplomaticcontactwithNative Americans.AttimeshecastIndiansasprimitivepeoples,exhibitingnoble simplicity;atothertimeshecastthemassavages,miredinvice.Tomodern eyestheseviewsarerepugnant.Buteighteenth-centuryprosewashighly inFected 3recallthesharpsatireofSwift,orthebleakironyofMande- ville 3anditisnotalwaysclearthatFranklin 9srhetoricshouldbetakenat facevalue.Hostiletobigotry,healsoarguedthatNativeAmericanspos- sessedtheirowncultures,distinctfromthoseofEuropeans,thatcouldbe understoodwithempathyandimagination[ 39 ].Heacknowledgedthat xxxii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information Introduction frontierviolencewasoftenthefruitofwhiteprovocation,andthatbru- talitywasnotthemonopolyofanyoneraceornation.Hewasappalledby thePaxtonBoys 3abandofbackcountryPennsylvanianswhoslaughtered defenselessIndiansinlate 1763 3andwroteanimpassioneddefenseof theirvictims. 15 Unlikemanyofhiscontemporaries 3includingThomas Jefferson 3heneitherproposednorembracedapolicyofextermination. Franklin 9sfaithinthebenevolenteffectsofacommercialeconomywas sostrongthathedidnotconfront 3orperhapsevencontemplate 3the humanconsequenceofanexpandingfrontierpopulation. TheAlbanyPlanwasrejectedbyboththecoloniesandthecrown. Franklinrecapitulatedmanyofhisbasicideastwentyyearslater,ina draft cArticlesofConfederation d[ 32 ].Butintheinterimhecontinued toreFectontherelationshipbetweendemographyandpolitics.In 1757 hewassenttoLondonbythePennsylvaniaAssemblytopersuadethe Britishtochangethetermsofthecolonialcharter.Franklinpainfully misjudgedthesituationandfailedinhismission.But,withtheexception ofatriphomein 1762 3 64 ,heremainedinLondonuntil 1775 asofEcial representativeofuptofourcolonies.Duringthistimeheemergedasa leadingspokesmanfortheAmericanpeople.Inthiscapacityhewrotewell overahundredpamphletsandletterstothepressconcerningthenature andbasisoftheBritishEmpire. Bythesecondquarteroftheeighteenthcenturytheterm cBritish Empire dhadcometobeidentiEedwithadistinctideology:itwasProtes- tant,maritime,commercial,andfree.Butthetermsofintegrationbetween themothercountryandthecoloniesofNorthAmericaremainedaboneof contention[ 26 ].Weretheypartnersandco-nationals,orwerethecolonies apoliticallydependenteconomicresourceforthemetropolis?Franklin sawthisissue,Erstandforemost,indemographicandeconomicterms. HesoughttoreassuretheBritonsthattheopenexpanseoflandinNorth Americaguaranteedthatitwouldremainagriculturalforatleastacen- tury.HewarmlyembracedDavidHume 9s 1760 essay cOftheJealousyof Trade dintheoptimisticfaiththatitmight cabate dEnglishanxietiesabout Americandevelopment.ButFranklin 9senthusiasmmaskedathreatening possibility:thatthewealthofNorthAmericawasnotsubjecttogross politicalmanipulation.TheBritishEmpirerestedonitsdominationof internationalmarkets.Butmarketshavetheirownlaws,imposinglimits 15 ANarrativeoftheLateMassacres,inLancasterCounty,ofaNumberofIndians,Friendsofthis Province,byPersonsUnknown , 1764 ,inPapers 11 : 42 3 69 . xxxiii © Cambridge University Presswww.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 0521834961 - Franklin: The Autobiography and Other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue Edited by Alan Houston Frontmatter More information

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