School: The Story of American Public Education Curriculum Guide

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School: The Story of American Public Education Curriculum Guide A companion guide for the video series, School: The Story of American Public Education , designed for use in post-secondary education courses. Prepared by Kim Nesta Archung Produced by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education in cooperation with Roundtable, Inc., Stone Lantern Films, and KCET/Hollywood. About the Author: Kim Nesta Archung has over 25 years of teaching experience and more than 15 years of experience in conducting professional development programs for schools.

She earned her B.A. from Fisk University and M.Ed. from Lesley College.

She is a Ph.D. candidate in the Division of Educational Studies at Emory University. The Clearinghouse gratefully acknowledges those who offered comments and suggestions for the Curriculum Guide: Gary Fenstermacher, University of Michigan; Stephen Mucher, University of Michigan; Michael Caruso, Fitchburg State University; and Lynne Brown, New York University.

Preparation of this publication was supported by funds from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), U.S. Department of Education, under contract number ED-99-CO-0007. The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the positions or policies of OERI or the U.S.

Department of Education. Table of Contents Introduction&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&.&. 2 Overview of Topical Perspectives&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& 5 Program Synopses and ... more. less.

Activities (by episode) Episode 1 3 The Common School (1770-1890)&&&&&&&&. 8 Episode 2 3 As American As Public School (1900-1950)&&&....12 Episode 3 3 Equality (1950-1980)&&&&&&&&&&&&& 15 Episode 4 3 The Bottom Line (1980-present)&&&&&&&&.. 18 Bibliography&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&... 21 SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 2 School Curriculum Guide Introduction cWe all have memories of school: The games we played. The friends we met. The teachers who nurtured us and the ones who imposed strict discipline. We learned how to spell, to read, to add and subtract. From generation to generation, for each era and individual, school has defined the shape of our young lives. & In school, we became aware of something larger than ourselves and our families. We became part of one nation. & But school is also the place where we have fought important battles, not only about education, but about the meaning and practice of democracy itself. Born out of centuries of conflict, innovation, and experimentation, the American system of public schools is one of the nation 9s most significant, and still unfinished, achievements. d From School , Episode One School , produced by Stone Lantern Films and presented on the Public Broadcasting System by KCET/Hollywood, is a four-part series on the history of the American system of public education. This curriculum guide is intended for use by post-secondary faculty in education who wish to infuse into their courses historical and current perspectives on the evolution of American public schools and the impact of public education on American society. The guide outlines for each of the four episodes 1) common or recurring themes, 2) various scholar perspectives, 3) key topics, and 4) focus questions. The guide is intended to help instructors teach the content presented in the series and to stimulate class dialogue and further explore topics introduced in the series. A list of references is provided at the end of the guide. In addition to using references from the bibliography, educators may find that class discussion can be enhanced through the use of primary sources. Useful primary sources include the text of pivotal court decisions (e.g., Brown vs. Board of Education ) and the Congressional Record , which documents political debates on education legislation. SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 3 Common or Recurring Themes Several themes recur throughout the School series. These themes provide an opportunity to explore issues in U.S. public education across time. They include: Schools defining and shaping American life 4the relationship between school organization and the Constitution The meaning and practice of democracy through the organization and mission of schools Control of schools (local community vs. state and federal government) Challenges of growing student enrollment Issues of nationhood and citizenship Public schools as the battleground for issues related to racial, ethnic, religious, and gender differences - Growth of immigrant populations 3 Americanization and assimilation - Segregated vs. integrated education for African Americans, Native Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans - Student achievement - Relationship between schools and organized religion 4religious issues forming the core of the American fabric, the separation of religion and state - Role of women in the development of teaching as a profession (pay, moral example, the development of system hierarchies) Teacher salaries School costs and expenditures School reform efforts and conflict surrounding innovation and experimentation Standardization of school structure (length of school year), pedagogy, curriculum, and materials Scholarly Perspectives Throughout the School series, a number of scholars, authors and experts present their perspectives on the history of American public education. These individuals represent several different schools of thought, and their divergent points of view are only briefly covered in the series. Further study and analysis of these various perspectives can enrich students 9 understanding of critical issues in education. Viewpoints are presented by: James Anderson (Episodes One, Two, Three, and Four) Paul Chapman (Episode Two) Ronald Cohen (Episode Two) Larry Cuban (Episode Two and Four) Chester Finn, Jr. (Episodes One, Two, Three, and Four) SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 4 Marcia Greenberger (Episode Three) Gilbert Gonzalez (Episode Two and Three) Jose Gutierrez (Episode Three) Jay Heubert (Episode Three) E. D. Hirsch, Jr. (Episodes One and Four) Nancy Hoffman (Episodes One and Two) Carl Kaestle (Episodes One and Four) Jonathan Kozol (Episode Four) Kathryn Kish Sklar (Episode One) Nicholas Lemann (Episodes One, Two, and Four) Deborah Meier (Episode Four) Gary Orfield (Episode Three) Diane Ravitch (Episodes One, Two, and Four) Father Richard Shaw Vanessa Siddle Walker (Episodes One and Three) Joel Spring (Episodes One, Two, and Three) David Tyack (Episodes One, Two, Three, and Four) Leslie Wolfe (Episode Three) SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 5 Overview of Topical Perspectives Covered in the School Series Episode One The Common School (1770-1890): The Origins of Public Education in the United States Episode One of the series provides an overview of American public education, exploring issues from the past, the present, and implications for the future of American public schools. This episode looks at the controversies, diverse perspectives, and social transformation of American society through its educational system. The foundations of American public schools are examined with a focus on the uniqueness of the American system of public education. The nature and structure of common schools are presented as the foundation for American public education and as a vehicle for institutionalizing democracy. Ultimately, this first episode sets the tone for examining recurring themes in American public education, including the education of the nation 9s cultural and ethnic minorities. A context is established to explore schools as a battleground for addressing issues of racial, ethnic, religious, and gender differences. Episode One concludes with an overview of westward expansion and the feminization of teaching in public schools. Sub- stories in this episode include: The Colonial Period and American Revolution Jefferson 9s Vision Horace Mann Protestantism versus Catholicism The Sarah Roberts Case Catherine Beecher Episode Two As American as Public School (1900-1950): Americanizing Immigrants Episode Two of the series investigates issues of assimilation, pluralism, racism, and ethnic tension in the fabric of American public education. The impact of 19 th- and 20 th- century immigrants on school structure, curricula, and instruction is examined, as are issues of school attendance and child labor. This episode includes a description of the progressive education era and its philosophical underpinnings. Particular emphasis is given to the progressive education movement and its role in establishing precedents for SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 6 addressing issues of ethnic and cultural diversity. Episode Two concludes with an exploration of themes that address the relationship between politics and public education. The influences of global issues, politics, and the promotion of race, class, and gender bias in American public education are examined. Sub-stories include: Child Labor and Immigration John Dewey and Progressive Education The Gary Plan 3 Industrial Education English-Only Curriculum The Stanford-Binet Test The Great Depression and World War II Life Adjustment Education The Cold War Episode Three Equality (1950-1980): Social Upheavals in Education Episode Three looks at issues of public education and social movements for equality in public education. The ideals and realities of the cseparate but equal d doctrine are examined, as are changes in public education brought about by Brown vs. Board of Education (1954), grassroots education reform efforts, and the role of communities in the fight for equality. This episode also presents a perspective on the influence of the postwar baby boom generation on increases in school enrollment, changes in curricula, and the development of technology as an aspect of job preparation for the increasing number of students pursuing higher education. Sub-stories include: Brown vs. Board of Education The Little Rock Nine The Civil Rights Act of 1964 The Elementary and Secondary School Act Mexican Americans 3 Crystal City, Texas Bilingual Education Women 9s Civil Rights and Title IX Students with Disabilities Busing and White Flight SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 7 Episode Four The Bottom Line (1980 to the present): Challenges to the Notion of a Common School Episode Four explores issues in public education from the 1980s to the present. Although much had been accomplished in American public education, in the 1980s public schools came under critical scrutiny. As an opponent of what conservatives termed cthe public school monopoly, d the Reagan administration declared a clearning crisis d that would change the American public 9s perceptions of its schools and open the door to a variety of reforms. This final episode presents an overview of current debates in American public education, including the standards and school choice movements. Sub-stories include: A Nation at Risk Standards and High Stakes Testing Alternative Schools Vouchers Home Schooling The Education Industry Charter Schools Focus Questions Questions are organized in two categories to promote discussion of each episode. The first set of questions (Topical Questions) is specific to the topical areas covered in each episode and is connected to the events specific to that episode. The second category (Reflective/Philosophical Questions) comprises more reflective questions that encourage philosophical discussions about enduring themes. SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 8 Episode One The Common School (1770-1890) The Origins of Public Education in the United States Common or Recurring Themes Explored: Schools defining and shaping American life 4the relationship between school organization and the Constitution The meaning and practice of democracy through the organization and mission of schools Control of schools (local community vs. state and federal government) Challenges of growing student enrollment Issues of nationhood and citizenship Public schools as the battleground for issues of racial, ethnic, religious, and gender differences - Relationship between schools and organized religion 4religious issues forming the core of the American fabric, the separation of religion and state Teacher salaries School costs and expenditures School reform efforts and conflict surrounding innovation and experimentation Perspectives: The following scholars and experts are highlighted in Episode One of the series. Further study and analysis of their points of view can lead to deeper exploration of the various issues addressed in the Topical Perspectives section of this guide (see below). A list of these scholars 9 publications is included in the bibliography section of this guide. James Anderson Chester Finn, Jr. E.D. Hirsch, Jr. Nancy Hoffman Carl Kaestle Kathryn Kish Sklar Nicholas Lemann Diane Ravitch Vanessa Siddle Walker Father Richard Shaw Joel Spring David Tyack SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 9 Topical Perspectives: Episode One is divided into five topical perspectives. These topical perspectives provide a foundation for investigating the recurring themes explored throughout the series as well as an opportunity to explore the opinions of various scholars associated with these topical areas. 1. The Uses of History and Educational Issues: Past, Present, and Implications for the Future Examining the controversies, diverse perspectives, and social transformation of American society through its system of public education. Historical perspectives and the telling of American educational history Influence of the frontier, sense of American exceptionalism 2. Politics and the Roots of American Public Education: So What Are Schools For? Exploring the beginnings of American public education with a focus on the uniqueness of the American system of public education. The function and philosophy of schools The political and social structure of early American public education The relationship between American democracy and the American system of education 3. The Common School: Institutionalizing Democracy Exploring the nature and structure of common schools as the foundation for American public education and as a vehicle for institutionalizing democracy. The formation of a democratic nation and the promotion of national ideals (knowledge and values at the root of common schools, preservation of the status quo) Millennial attitudes 3 exploring the fear of political decay, social chaos, and educational redemption 4. Race and Education in the 19 th Century: The Challenge of Multicultural Education Exploring the roots of assimilation, pluralism, racism, and ethnic tension in the fabric of American public education. The educational experiences of African Americans, females, and Catholic immigrants 5. Westward Expansion: The Feminization of Teaching in Public Schools Exploring the relationship between westward expansion and the feminization of the teaching profession. The reproduction of eastern institutions and the influence on the development of a school ethic SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 10 The teacher crisis, the reform of education for women, and the creation of a women 9s profession Expansion and standardization of a public school ethic The progress and failings of public education 3 segregation and exclusion (expansion of segregated schools for Native Americans and African Americans; differences in literacy achievement for whites and other ethnic groups) Focus Questions: A. Topical Questions Why is public education essential to democracy? What are the distinctions in the various ways that people used for their children to learn to read? - To what extent did these distinctions reflect the cultural underpinnings of the early American settlers? What was the common school movement and for whom was it intended? Why and how were the forms of early education significant to the development of common schools? How did the task of nation building shape the formation of common schools? To what extent did the American system of education succeed or fail at becoming the cgreat equalizer d? To what extent did the major issues surrounding the education of African Americans reflect the country 9s values? - To what extent did early arguments and court cases surrounding African American educational issues in the North set a precedent for educational issues in the 20 th century? - To what extent were the Civil War and Reconstruction significant in shaping the educational landscape across the United States? To what extent was the education of females indicative of the organization of the American social order? How did it challenge the American social order? - What is significant about the educational experiences of girls in the early common school experience? - How did the growth of American cities and towns influence changes in the education of females? - Why were women 9s changing roles within education significant to the development of public education? Why was the conflict over the religious ideals of Catholic immigrants such an important issue in the development of public education? - How did the influx of Catholic immigrants influence public education? - What were the underlying reasons for the separation of church and state with regard to public education? To what extent did the movement west help shape the development of public education in the United States? - How were issues of centralization, decentralization, and standardization of schools played out as Americans moved west? SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 11 B. Reflective/Philosophical Questions To what extent do perspectives of American educational history differ? To what extent are they similar? What roles have schools played in the development of American education? To what extent does public education promote individual growth among their students versus exert social control? What is the relationship between the political organization of the United States and its public school system? To what extent does public education unify the United States? To what extent have politics driven educational agendas throughout U.S. history? To what extent have political leaders influenced the structure and organization of public education? How is democracy modeled and carried out in public schools? How has school shaped and defined the lives of the American public? What is the relationship between our understanding of public education and the Constitution? SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 12 Episode Two As American as Public School (1900-1950) Americanizing Immigrants Common or Recurring Themes Explored: Control of schools (local community vs. state and federal government) Challenges of growing student enrollment Issues of nationhood and citizenship Public schools as the battleground for issues related to racial, ethnic, religious, and gender differences - Growth of immigrant populations 3 Americanization and assimilation - Segregated vs. integrated education for African Americans, Native Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans School costs and expenditures School reform efforts and conflict surrounding innovation and experimentation Standardization of school structure (length of school year), pedagogy, curriculum, and materials Perspectives: The following scholars and experts are highlighted in Episode Two of the series. Further study and analysis of their points of view can lead to a deeper understanding of various issues addressed in the Topical Perspectives of this guide (see below). A list of these scholars' publications is included in the bibliography section of this guide. James Anderson Paul Chapman Ronal Cohen Larry Cuban Chester Finn, Jr. Gilbert Gonzalez Nancy Hoffman Nicholas Lemann Diane Ravitch Joel Spring David Tyack SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 13 Topical Perspectives: Episode Two is divided into three topical perspectives. These areas address several recurring themes and provide an opportunity to explore the perspectives of scholars associated with these perspectives. 1. An Influx of Immigration: Influences on School Structures, Curricula, and Instruction Exploring the influences of 19 th and early 20 th century immigrants on school structures, curriculum, and instruction, the development of child labor laws and increases in school attendance. Responses of different communities to the influx of immigrants Issues of classroom space and overcrowding Standardizing methods of instruction 2. Americanization and the Politics of School Reform Exploring the perspectives of progressive education school reformers and the establishment of a precedent for addressing issues of ethnic and cultural diversity within American public education. Philosophy of progressive education The transformation of the curriculum Manual training and industrial education 3. Politics and the Changing Face of American Public Education Exploring the influence of global issues on politics and the promotion of race, class, and gender bias in American public education. World War II and global influences on American education The segregated education of African Americans, Native Americans, and Mexican Americans - Industrial education versus classical college preparatory education - IQ testing 3 tracking and ethnic division Focus Questions: A. Topical Questions What caused the influx of immigration in the 19 th and 20 th centuries? Why was child labor so high? How did the increase in immigration affect school structure, curriculum, and instructional practices? - What were the responses of different communities to the influx of immigrants (particularly Russian, Polish, Italian, German, Mexican, and Asian) What were the different positions that progressive reformers took about American public education? To what extent did social efficiency, mobilization, and assimilation of immigrants influence the development of schools in the progressive education period? SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 14 What were the significant changes that progressive educators introduced into public schools? - What were the most positive contributions of progressive education? How did progressive education influence child labor laws, compulsory school attendance, classroom conditions, curriculum, and instructional practices? - What were the most negative aspects of progressive education? What effects did progressive education have on immigrants coming into the United States during the late 19 th and 20 th centuries? Why did factions exist among immigrant populations concerning attitudes for or against progressive education? To what extent did the attitudes and philosophies of progressive educators influence the school experiences and academic achievement of marginalized ethnic groups (Native Americans, Mexican Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans)? - How were elements of progressive education reforms maintained in the curriculum advocated for segregated schools for African Americans, Native Americans, and Mexican Americans? To what extent did World War I influence school curricula and instructional practices? What relationship did World War II have on the increasing numbers of students enrolled in public schools and how did this relationship influence the changing nature of secondary education? What influences did the progressive education movement maintain in the structure of schools, especially for high school students? B. Reflective/Philosophical Questions How do we educate all children (foreign born, American born, rich, and poor)? Who does school benefit and who does school fail? What is the relationship between educational change and political agendas? Historically, where have schools perpetuated racial stereotyping? SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 15 Episode Three Equality (1950-1980) Social Upheavals in Education Common or Recurring Themes Explored: The relationship between school organization and the Constitution The meaning and practice of democracy through the organization and mission of schools Control of schools (local community vs. state and federal government) Public schools as the battleground for issues of racial, ethnic, religious, and gender differences - Segregated vs. integrated education for African Americans, Native Americans, Latinos, and Asian Americans - Gender-specific experiences in education School costs and expenditures Issues of school reform and resulting conflict leading to innovation and experimentation Perspectives: The following scholars and experts are highlighted in Episode Three of the series. Further study and analysis of their points of view can lead to deeper exploration of the various issues addressed in the Topical Perspectives section of this guide (see below). A list of these scholars' publications is included in the bibliography section of this guide. James Anderson Chester Finn, Jr. Gilbert Gonzalez Marcia Greenberger Jose Angel Gutierrez Jay Heubert Gary Orfield Vanessa Siddle Walker Joel Spring David Tyack Leslie Wolfe Topical Perspective: Episode Three focuses on one perspective that brings together several recurring themes. This episode explores the roots of social movements for equality in public education. Social Movements and Public Education Exploring issues of public education, social movements, the fight for educational equality, and the realities of the cseparate but equal d doctrine. Educational inequities and inequality SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 16 Educational reform grassroots efforts 3 the role of communities in the fight for equality Postwar baby boom generation and the influence on increases in school enrollments and changes in curricula The development of technology and job preparation for increasing numbers of students pursuing higher education Focus Questions: A. Topical Questions What role did the African American community play in establishing educational equity? - What were the prevalent issues in the African American community regarding segregated schools? - What were the perspectives on school desegregation in the African American community? - Why was Topeka, Kansas, targeted as a place to obtain educational equality? How did Brown vs. Board of Education influence other struggles for educational equality? What lessons were learned concerning desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas? Why was the Civil Rights Act of 1964 more effective in promoting desegregation than the Brown decision? - Which groups did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 ultimately impact? What was the key to achieving equality in education for Mexican Americans in the Crystal City, Texas? What were the education-related initiatives that grew out of Johnson's War on Poverty? Why did leaders from the women's movement focus on the educational system? In what ways were women's demands for equal educational opportunity different from those of other minorities? In what ways were they the same? How did the demands for equality made by advocates for the disabled in the 1970s relate to the original common school ideal? What was the logic behind court ordered bussing? To what extent was it successful? Why do you think it was so controversial? In this era, how did decisions affecting the schools shape the future of American society (the deep divisions between city and suburbs)? B. Reflective/Philosophical Questions To what extent is Americanization or cultural diversity the purpose for bilingual education? To what extent do national and state governments control public schools? To what extent does America 9s citizenry control public schools? What role do communities play in securing educational equality? What price do communities pay for gains made toward educational equality? How do current reforms affect the American quest for educational equality? To what extent does politics influence the establishment of educational equality? SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 17 To what extent do individuals and communities play a role in establishing educational equality? How are students a force for securing educational equity? Is 8separate but equal 9 a viable option in education today? Is this a course we should pursue as a society? SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 18 Episode Four The Bottom Line (1980 to the present) Challenges to the Notion of a Common School Common or Recurring Themes Explored: The meaning and practice of democracy through the organization and mission of schools Control of schools and the influence of market reforms on school choice Relationship between schools and the nation 9s economy Standards and testing Educational equity School reform 3 community and grassroots involvement in educational change Relationship between schools and organized religion 3 the separation of religion and state Perspectives: The following scholars and experts are highlighted in Episode Four of the series. Further study and analysis of their points of view can lead to deeper exploration of the various issues addressed in the Topical Perspectives section of this guide (see below). A list of these scholars' publications is included in the bibliography section of this guide. James Anderson Larry Cuban Chester Finn, Jr. E. D. Hirsch, Jr. Carl Kaestle Jonathan Kozol Nicholas Lemann Deborah Meier Diane Ravitch David Tyack Topical Perspectives: Episode Four focuses on three topical perspectives that bring together several recurring themes. These topical perspectives provide an opportunity to explore issues of erosion in the support for public schools and the future of public education. 1. The Learning Crisis 3 A Nation at Risk Exploring the influence of politicians and the press on America 9s perceptions of schools. The Reagan years and perceptions of decline in American public education The relationship between the nation's economy and perceptions of educational achievement SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 19 2. The Standards Movement Exploring the push for higher educational standards and the demand for measurable results. The demand for higher graduation standards and the development of technology High stakes testing and creating a government monopoly 3. School Reform and Strategies of Choice Exploring strategies of choice as a means for injecting competition into America 9s urban schools. The marketplace model: - Alternative and magnet schools - The voucher movement - Home schooling - Privatization - Charter schools Focus Questions: A. Topical Questions What influence did the shift of focus from cequity d to cexcellence d have on the quality of public education? What is the motivation behind the argument for school choice? How does school choice affect concepts of public versus private education? B. Reflective/Philosophical Questions What relationship exists between the push for higher education standards and high stakes testing? How do shifts in governmental policies and priorities affect teaching and learning? How do changes in political agendas influence the perception of public education? How do free-market reforms challenge the basic ideals of public education? What relationship exists between the nation 9s economic development and its perceptions of public education? What education interest groups have been most supportive of school choice? What education interest groups have been most opposed to school choice? For what reasons have these groups been supportive or opposed to school choice? Do school choice structures perpetuate or eradicate inequality? Why? How? How do school choice debates relate to the issues of cultural, racial, and economic domination within school structures and curricula? Does school choice improve public education? Why or why not? How have strategies for school choice helped public education to develop? Does a competitive environment in public education create a positive or negative outcome? Who benefits from alternative and magnet schools? Who does not benefit? What are the pros and cons of the voucher movement? SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 20 Do vouchers offer a solution to the problems that plague public education? Why or why not? What political battles do vouchers and home schooling spark? How does privatization help the development of public education? How does it hinder the development of public education? What are the benefits and flaws of privatization? What relationship could exist between private industry and public education that would be of benefit? To what extent do charter schools solve or add to the problems of public education? How do public schools hold together the social fabric of the nation? Is there core knowledge and shared culture that public schools have an obligation to provide? If so, from whose perspective should it be derived? What is the cost of diversification and experimentation in public education? How should public education attend to issues of equity and excellence? What is the best way to educate the next generation of Americans? SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 21 Bibliography of School Series Authors and Recommended Authors Anderson, J. (1988). The education of blacks in the South, 1860-1935. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Bensman, D. (2000). Central Park East and its graduates: cLearning by heart. d New York: Teachers College Press. Cremen, L. A. (1961). The transformation of the school: Progressivism in American education, 1876-1957. New York: Vintage Books. Cubberley, E. (1909). Changing conceptions of education . Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Cubberley, E. (1914). Rural life and education: A study of the rural-school problem as a phase of the rural-life problem. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Cubberley, E. (1920). The history of education: Educational practice and progress considered as a phase of the development and spread of Western civilization. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Cubberley, E. (1920). Readings in the history of education: A collection of sources and readings to illustrate the development of educational practice, theory, and organization . Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Cubberley, E. (1934). Public education in the United States: A study and interpretation of American educational history. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Cuban, L. (1970). To make a difference: Teaching in the inner city . New York: Free Press. Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since 1920. New York: Teachers College Press. Cuban, L. (1993). How teachers taught: Constancy and change in American classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press. Cuban, L., & Shipps, D. (Eds.) (2000). Reconstructing the common good in education: Coping with intractable American dilemmas. [Ed: need publisher info] Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Finn, C. (1977). Education and the presidency . Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Finn, C. (1978). Scholars, dollars, and bureaucrats. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. Finn, C., Ravitch, D., & Fancher, T. (Eds.). (1984). Against mediocrity: The humanities in America 9s high schools. New York: Holmes & Meir. SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 22 Finn, C., Ravitch, D., & Holley Roberts, P. (1985). Challenges to the humanities. New York: Holmes & Meier. Finn, C., & Rebarber, T. (Eds.). (1992). Education reform in the 890s . New York: Macmillan. Finn, C. (2000). Charter schools in action: Renewing public education . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Gonzalez, G. (1990). Chicano education in the era of segregation. Philadelphia: Balch Institute Press. Hildalgo, N., McDowell, C., & Siddle Walker, E. V. (Eds.). (1990) . Facing racism in education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review. Hirsch, E. D. (1987). Cultural literacy: What every American needs to know . New York: Vintage Books. Hirsch, E. D. (1988). Cultural literacy (video recording). McNeil/Lehrer News Hour. Princeton, NJ: Films for the Humanities. Hirsch, E. D. (1993). The dictionary of cultural literacy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Hirsch, E. D. (1996). The schools we need and why we don 9t have them. New York: Doubleday. Heubert, J., & Hauser, R. (Eds.). (1999). High stakes: Testing for tracking, promotion, and graduation. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Heubert, J. (Ed.). (1999). Law and school reform: Six strategies for promoting educational equity. New Haven, CN: Yale University Press. Kaestle, C. (1973 ). The evolution of an urban school system: New York City, 1750-1850. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Kaestle, C. (1973). Joseph Lancaster and the monitorial school movement: A documentary history. New York: Teachers College Press. Kaestle, C. (1980 ). Education and social change in nineteenth-century Massachusetts. New York: Cambridge University Press. Kaestle, C. (1983). Pillars of the republic: Common schools and American society, 1780-1860. New York: Hill and Wang. Kish Sklar, K. (1973). Catherine Beecher: A study in domesticity . New Haven, CN: Yale University Press. SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 23 Kozol, J. (1967). Death at an early age: The destruction of the hearts and minds of Negro children in the Boston public schools. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Kozol, J. (1992). Savage inequalities: Children in America 9s schools . New York: Harper Perennial. Lemann, N. (1999). The big test: The secret history of the American meritocracy . New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Lund, L. (1993). Ten years after ca nation at risk. d New York: Conference Board. Mirel, J., & Angus, D. (1999). The failed promise of the American high school. New York: Teachers College Press. Mirel, J. (1999). The rise and fall of an urban school system: Detroit 1907-1981 . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Orfield, G. (1978). Must we bus? Segregated schools and national policy. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. Orfield, G. (1988). Separate societies: Have the Kerner warnings come true? In F. R. Harris and R. W. Wilkins, Eds., Quiet riots 4Race and poverty in the United States . New York: Pantheon. Perkinson, H. J. (1977). The imperfect panacea: American faith in education, 1865-1976. New York: Random House. Ravitch, D. (1974). The great school wars: New York City, 1805-1973 . New York: Basic Books. Ravitch, D. (1983). The troubled crusade: American education, 1945-1980 . New York: Basic Books. Ravitch, D. (1990). Diversity and democracy: Multicultural education in America, in American Educator 14 (Spring): 16-20, 46-48. Ravitch, D. (2000). Left back: A century of failed school reforms. New York: Simon & Schuster. Riley, R. (1995). Turning the corner: From a nation at risk to a nation with a future: Second annual address. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Siddle Walker, V. (1996). Their highest potential: An African American school community in the segregated South. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. SCHOOL: The Story of American Public Education 3 AACTE Curriculum Guide 24 Smith, T. (1994). America 9s teachers ten years after ca nation at risk d: Findings from the condition of education 1994. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics. Spring, J. (1978). American education: An introduction to social and political aspects. New York: Longman. Spring, J. (1990). The American school, 1642-1990: Varieties of historical interpretation of the foundations and development of American education. New York: Longman. Spring, J. (1996). The cultural transformation of a Native American family and its tribe, 1763-1995: A basket of apples. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Spring, J. (1998). Conflict of interests: The politics of American education . Boston: McGraw-Hill Spring, J. (2000). 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