Kindergarten

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1 Kindergarten In Kindergarten, the focus is on the self, home, family, and classroom. The study of our state and national heritage begins with an examination of the celebration of patriotic holidays and the contri- butions of historical people. The concept of chronology is introduced.

Students discuss geographic concepts of location and physical and human characteristics of places. Students are introduced to the basic human needs of food, clothing, and shelter and to ways that people meet these needs. Students learn the purpose of rules and the role of authority figures in the home and school.

Students learn customs, symbols, and celebrations that represent American beliefs and principles and contribute to our national identity. Students compare family customs and traditions and describe examples of tech- nology in the home and school. Students acquire information from a variety of oral and visual sources.

To support the teaching of the essential knowledge and skills, the use of a variety of rich material such as biographies; folktales; myths; legends; and poetry, songs, and artworks is encouraged. Selections may include You 9re a Grand Old Flag and a children 9s biography of George Washington. Motivating resources are also available from museums, historical sites, presidential libraries, and local ... more. less.

and state preservation societies. Stephen F. Austin (1793-1836) Stephen F. Austin is considered the cFather of Texas d due to his contin- ued efforts to settle the territory. His father Moses Austin contracted with the Spanish government to colonize a por- tion of northern Mexico. When Moses died in June 1821, the contract transferred to the younger Austin. Stephen se- lected a site for his colony along the Brazos and Colorado rivers and began recruiting families in 1821. Progress was slow because of difficulty in transporting supplies into the area and because of changing Mexican politics. Austin fre- quently discussed the future of his colony with Mexican of- ficials and he earned their trust. By 1825, 297 families lived in Austin 9s Colony. They were called the cOld Three Hundred. d Austin contin- ued to negotiate with the Mexican government and repre- sent residents. He also secured other land grants. In ten years he helped more than 1,500 families settle in Texas. At first the leadership of Antonio López de Santa Anna pleased Aus- tin, but as Santa Anna assumed more and more control, he limited the freedom of the Texans. Austin supported the or- ganized opposition to the absolute power of Santa Anna. This opposition led to the Texas Revolution. George Washington (1732-1799) George Wash- ington became the first president of the United States elected under the newly ratified Constitution. He served two terms between 1789 and 1797. A resident of Virginia, he was a surveyor, a planter, a soldier in the French and Indian War, a delegate to the First and Second Continental Congresses, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolution, and the chairman of the Constitutional Convention in 1787. His plantation home was Mount Vernon. He is known as the cFather of Our Country d and his likeness is one of four presidents carved into the monument at Mount Rushmore, South Dakota. Presidents 9 Day, a federal holi- day, occurs on the third Monday in February, near his birth- day, February 22. 2 Grade 1 In Grade 1, students learn about their relationship to the classroom, school, and community. The con- cepts of time and chronology are developed by distinguishing among past, present, and future events. Students identify anthems and mottoes of the United States and Texas. Students make simple maps to identify the location of places in the classroom, school, and community. The concepts of goods and services and the value of work are introduced. Students identify historic figures and ordinary people who exhibit good citizenship. Students describe the importance of family customs and traditions and identify how technology has changed family life. Students sequence and categorize information. To support the teaching of the essential knowledge and skills, the use of a variety of rich material such as biographies; folktales; myths; legends; and poetry, songs, and artworks is encouraged. Selections may include a children 9s biography of Abraham Lincoln. Motivating resources are also available from museums, historical sites, presidential libraries, and local and state preservation societies. Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931)Thomas Edison, one of the greatest inventors of all time, received more than 1,300 patents for a range of items including the automatic telegraph machine, the phonograph, improvements to the light bulb, a modernized telephone, and motion pic- ture equipment. He concentrated on electrical inventions and opened his first cinvention factory d in Newark, New Jersey, in 1870. In 1876 he opened his lab in Menlo Park where he and his workers developed and patented the incandescent light bulb, a transmitter for the telephone, and the phono- graph, his favorite invention. He operated the world 9s first electric power station on Pearl Street in New York City, opened in 1882. By 1887 he expanded operations to West Orange, New Jersey, where workers averaged one patented invention every five days. Sam Houston (1793-1863)Sam Houston provided leadership for more than 25 years in Texas, commanding the army, and serving as president of the Republic, U.S. senator, and then governor. He was already a notable American when he came to Texas in 1832. Born in Virginia, he lived for several years in Tennessee learning from the Cherokee. He served in the army under the command of General Andrew Jackson. After his military service he was a representative to the Tennessee Congress and served as governor. Because of his knowledge of and appreciation for the Cherokee, he of- ten represented the United States in attempts to settle dis- putes. Upon his arrival in Texas, Houston 9s experience with federal and state government proved valuable as delegates to the Texas Convention of 1836 worked to draft a constitu- tion and declare independence from Mexico. Houston left the convention early to command the Texas army against Santa Anna 9s advancing Mexican troops. Texans proclaimed Houston the hero of the Battle of San Jacinto during which Santa Anna was captured and his Mexican army routed. The Treaties of Velasco resulted. Afterward, Houston became the first elected president of the Republic of Texas in 1836 and was reelected in 1841. Hous- ton struggled to solve the problem of a growing national debt. Eventually the Republic sought support from the United States and Houston supported annexation of Texas by the United States. Others wanted Texas to remain a republic. Texas became the twenty-eighth state in late 1845. Sam Hous- ton served as a U.S. senator from Texas and then was elected governor in 1859. He opposed secession from the union and left the governor 9s office after Texans voted overwhelmingly to secede in January 1861. Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)Abraham Lin- coln served as president of the United States during the Civil War. He managed to preserve the unity of the United States and took steps to abolish slavery, but was assassinated be- fore he could implement post-war plans. He began his po- litical career by serving four terms in the Illinois state leg is- 3 lature beginning in 1834. He served one term as representa- tive from Illinois to the U.S. House of Representatives. He was elected the sixteenth President in 1860, re-elected in 1864, and assassinated in 1865. He helped build the Repub- lican Party, which replaced the Whig Party in the 1850s, from obscurity to the party of choice by 1860. His Gettysburg Ad- dress, delivered in November 1863 at the dedication of the national cemetery at the Civil War battlefield, called for na- tional unity despite obstacles. He began the process of free- ing slaves in the Confederate states when he issued his Eman- cipation Proclamation in 1863. His most lasting influence remains the Thirteenth Amendment, ratified in December 1865, months after his death. It banned slavery throughout the United States. His likeness is one of four presidents carved into the monument at Mount Rushmore, South Da- kota. Presidents 9 Day, a federal holiday, occurs on the third Monday in February, near his birthday, February 12. Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922)Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. Born in Scotland, Bell sought a greater understanding of deafness by studying sound and the mechanics of speech. He was influenced by his fa- ther who invented visible speech, a code of symbols used to teach deaf people to speak. The younger Bell moved to Bos- ton, Massachusetts, to work at the Boston School for the Deaf in 1871 but he quickly opened his own school. By 1873 he was teaching vocal physiology at Boston University. Bell understood the concept of the telephone by 1874 but was not successful in transmitting a voice message until March 10, 1876, three days after the patent for his invention was issued. He and partners formed Bell Telephone Company in 1877. He helped develop Science , the journal of the Ameri- can Association for the Advancement of Science. He assisted in founding the National Geographic Society and supported experiments in aviation. Clara Harlow Barton (1821-1912)Clara Barton taught school for nearly two decades before becoming one of the first female employees of the federal government, working in the Patent Office. After viewing the unprepared Union troops and inadequate care of the sick following the Battle of Bull Run, she organized donations and shipments of supplies to battlegrounds in Virginia and Maryland dur- ing 1862. While Dorothea Dix and the U.S. Sanitary Com- mission concentrated on organizing nurses, Barton worked with procurement and distribution. In 1865, with President Abraham Lincoln 9s support, she opened an agency to search for missing soldiers and marked the graves of nearly 13,000 men who died at Andersonville prison camp in Georgia. Fol- lowing the Civil War, during a trip to Europe, she learned about the International Committee of the Red Cross, formed in Switzerland in 1863. She supported the cause of interna- tional cooperation and sought congressional approval for governmental support for the Red Cross, which was finally granted in 1882. Nathan Hale (1755-1776)An American soldier in the Revolution, Nathan Hale volunteered to spy on the Brit- ish on Long Island. He was captured and hung on Septem- ber 22, 1776. His last words, paraphrased from Addison 9s play, Cato, were, cI only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country. d These words quickly became an inspi- ration for Patriots during the Revolution and remain part of the American story of the quest for independence. Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962)Considered by many the most influential First Lady and one of the most significant American women of the 20th century, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt married her cousin Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1905. Eleanor was timid and not involved in politics and competed with her mother-in-law for the atten- tion of her husband. Her approach changed when Franklin was struck by polio in 1921. Thereafter she and F.D.R. 9s cam- paign advisor Louis Howe coordinated efforts to cast Mr. Roosevelt as a national leader. She realized the importance of the role of women in politics, organizing the Democratic national campaign for women in 1928 as her husband competed for the governor- ship of New York state. She politicized the plight of Afri- can-American men and women and working-class whites, supported the reform causes of Jane Addams and others, and promoted the political careers of women. During World War II she continued striving for civil rights, believing that people of all races have inviolate rights and that democracy in the United States could not exist as long as democracy was not extended to African-Americans. President Harry S. Truman appointed her as a delegate to the United Nations. She chaired the Human Rights Commission which drafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted on December 10, 1948. President John F. Kennedy appointed her to the United Nations and she chaired his Commission on the Status of Women. Grade 1 4 Grade 2 In Grade 2, students focus on a study of their local community by examining the impact of significant individuals and events on the history of the community as well as on the state and nation. Students begin to develop the concepts of time and chronology by measuring calendar time by days, weeks, months, and years. The relationship between the physical environment and human activities is intro- duced as are the concepts of consumers and producers are introduced, as is the relationship between the physical environment and human activities. Students identify functions of government as well as ser- vices provided by the local government. Students continue to acquire knowledge of important customs, symbols, and celebrations that represent American beliefs and principles. Students identify the signifi- cance of works of art in the local community and explain how technological innovations have changed transportation and communication. Students communicate what they have learned in written, oral, and visual forms. To support the teaching of the essential knowledge and skills, the use of a variety of rich material such as biographies; folktales; myths; legends; and poetry, songs, and artworks is encouraged. Selections may include the legend of the bluebonnet. Motivating resources are also available from museums, historical sites, presidential libraries, and local and state preservation societies. Henrietta Chamberlain King (1832-1925) Henrietta Chamberlain and her husband Richard King moved to their new home on Santa Gertrudis Creek in 1854. It evolved into one of the largest and best known ranches in Texas history. The King Ranch served as a receiving station for cotton during the Civil War as it was shipped through Mexican ports to England. When Mr. King died in 1885, Henrietta assumed the management of his estate including 500,000 acres and $500,000 in debt. With the help of her son-in-law, King was debt-free within ten years and was experimenting in cattle and horse breeding, range manage- ment, and dry and irrigated farming. The Santa Gertrudis cattle were bred to resist disease and heat; one of the horses won the triple crown in 1946. King supported the establish- ment of businesses, industry, churches and schools, and health care. At the time of her death, the ranch included 1,173,000 acres, stretching from Corpus Christi to Brownsville. Thurgood Marshall (1908-1993) Thurgood Marshall earned his law degree from Howard Law School in Washington, D.C. and made significant contribu- tions in the quest for legal justice and civil rights in the United States. He argued cases which furthered the rights of Afri- can-Americans and then became the first African-American appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court. His early career in- volved assisting his mentor Charles Hamilton Houston, who served as special counsel to the Legal Defense Fund of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The group challenged the validity of segregation and the concept of separate but equal as established by the 1896 Supreme Court decision Plessy v. Ferguson . They ar- gued that the decision violated the 14th Amendment. In 1954 Marshall won his most famous case, Brown v. Board of Edu- cation . Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Earl Warren announced the unanimous decision that segregation of pub- lic schools was inherently unequal and unconstitutional, and he ordered desegregation. The decision motivated school districts to address the inadequate educational systems for blacks which had resulted from the cseparate-but-equal d approach to segregation. President Lyndon Johnson nomi- nated Marshall to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1967 and he served until retirement in 1991. Amelia Earhart (1897-1937)Amelia Earhart is best remembered as the female pilot who disappeared during an attempt to fly around the world. Earhart learned quickly; 5 she taught and worked as a social worker but was not trained or suited for either. Her interest in flying began during a stint as a nurse in a Canadian military hospital during World War I. She flew solo in 1921 but had to stop flying due to finan- cial constraints. Following Lindbergh 9s flight across the At- lantic, Earhart was picked to accompany two male pilots on the same path. Lacking the experience of female barnstorm- ing pilots, her popularity was a product of well-placed pub- licity. She was elected the first president of the Ninety-Nines Club, an organization for women pilots founded in 1929, and gained even more recognition by setting endurance and speed records. She and a male assistant were the only crew in the Lockheed plane which disappeared over the Pacific Ocean on July 2, 1937, as she flew around the world on a mission of scientific research. Robert Fulton (1765-1815)Robert Fulton is re- membered as the inventor of the first commercially success- ful steamboat in the United States. He had many interests and talents but he made his living as a painter. As a young adult he traveled to England to paint. He spent nearly 20 years in England and France during which time he became interested in water transportation. In 1796, he produced Trea- tise on the Improvement of Canal Navigation, complete with detailed drawings and calculations supporting a national transportation system. He applied his interest in underwater warfare by launching submarines with mines to break the British blockade of France, and then cooperated with the British against France using similar methods. In 1801 he met Robert R. Livingston, the American minister to France, who was interested in steam navigation on New York waterways. Returning to the United States, Fulton adapted British canal boat design, established a regular schedule, and introduced the idea of comfort to travel. The North River Steamboat , known popularly as the Clermont , sailed from New York north on the Hudson River in 1807, beginning a new era in maritime travel. Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)Florence Nightingale led public health and nursing reforms in the mid- 1800s. Born to a privileged family, she was persuaded to enter nursing by Samuel and Julia Ward Howe in 1845. In 1854 she was given command of a team of nurses to treat soldiers of the Crimean War and after two years of service she began the difficult task of documenting the health care offered by the British army at home and abroad. She estab- lished the Nightingale School of Nurses in 1860 and worked to raise the status and pay of nurses, thereby contributing to the recognition of women 9s rights and the role of women in society. Paul Revere (1735-1818)The son of a silversmith who immigrated to Boston from France, Paul Revere learned the trade and became one of the finest silversmiths in America. He also made copper engravings from which he produced seals, coats of arms and bookplates, and by the 1760s, anti-British engravings. The prints from his engrav- ings depicting the events leading up to and during the Revo- lution are highly prized. He was a reliable messenger for the Massachusetts Committee of Safety and recognized the threat the British troops posed to the military stores in Concord. His attempt to signal colonists about the movement of the British using lanterns from the spire of the North Church was immortalized in the poem cPaul Revere 9s Ride d by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Many of Revere 9s surviving silver pieces are works of art, done in either the rococo style or the neoclassical style popular after the Revolution. Sojournor Truth , a.k.a. Isabella Van Wagenen (ca. 1797- 1883)Born into slavery in New York, Isabella adopted the name of a Quaker family, Van Wagenen, in 1827. She was a natural leader of imposing stature, nearly six feet tall and powerfully built. Always deeply religious, she adopted the name Sojournor Truth in 1843 when she decided to be- come a traveling public speaker. Her travels took her from Long Island to Connecticut, Massachusetts, Ohio, and Kan- sas. Her autobiography, Narrative of Sojourner Truth (1850), increased her recognition. It was enlarged in subsequent print- ings in 1875 and 1884. She was involved in the women 9s rights movement in addition to abolition and worked to raise funds for African-American soldiers during the Civil War. After the war her efforts centered on settling freedmen on western lands and gaining for women the right to vote. She died at her home in Battle Creek, Michigan. Grade 2 6 Grade 3 In Grade 3, students learn how individuals have changed their communities and world. Students study the effects inspiring heroes have had on communities, past and present. Students learn about the lives of heroic men and women who made important choices, overcame obstacles, sacrificed for the better- ment of others, and embarked on journeys that resulted in new ideas, new inventions, and new commu- nities. Students expand their knowledge through the identification and study of people who made a difference, influenced public policy and decision making, and participated in resolving issues that are important to all people. Throughout Grade 3, students develop an understanding of the economic, cultural, and scientific contributions made by individuals. To support the teaching of the essential knowledge and skills, the use of a variety of rich material such as biographies; folktales; myths; legends; and poetry, songs, and artworks is encouraged. Selections may include the legend of Paul Bunyan. Motivating resources are also available from museums, his- torical sites, presidential libraries, and local and state preservation societies. Pierre Charles L 9Enfant (1754-1825)Born in France, Pierre L 9Enfant applied French architectural styles to U.S. government buildings during the era of the early re- public. He volunteered to fight in the American Revolution and wintered at Valley Forge in 1777 where he served as captain of engineers for a time. After the war, President George Washington commissioned him to design the em- blems for the Society of the Cincinnati. L 9Enfant converted the Old City Hall in Philadelphia to Federal Hall, to serve the U.S. Congress. When Washington, D.C. was chosen as the new site of the federal capital, Washington asked L 9Enfant to design the city. L 9Enfant was dismissed in 1792 because he did not listen to directions, overspent the budget, and ig- nored the claims of previous owners. Nonetheless, his plan is evident in the modern layout, with the White House and Capitol on high ground and the streets intersecting at land- marks. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) Born in Genoa, Italy, Christopher Columbus was a navigator and ex- plorer who planned and led the voyage which landed in the West Indies in 1492. Columbus believed that, because the world was round and because long-distance navigation was technically possible, sailors should be able to head west to arrive in the East. Trade with the East was highly prized; spices and other commodities brought profit to merchants involved in overland trade. An ocean route could increase profit. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain partially funded the expedition at Columbus 9 request. Earlier attempts made by Columbus to secure Por- tuguese funding for voyages to chart new routes to the Far East failed but in 1492, with Spanish support, he set sail with three ships. When he touched land after a 37-day voyage, debarking on present-day San Salvador on October 12, 1492, he believed he had reached the East Indies. He led three more voyages to the New World searching for gold and other trea- sures prior to his death in 1506. He established the first per- manent colony in Cuba during his second voyage in 1493, deposited more settlers near Venezuela in 1494, and com- pleted his fourth voyage in 1503. Though Columbus never made the financial gains he envisioned, European nations realized the potential of the new continent as a source of riches and agricultural commodities and competed for colo- nization rights. The significance of Columbus 9 discovery is remembered every Columbus Day, a federal holiday on the second Monday of October. Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809)Meriwether Lewis is remembered as the leader of the successful expedi- tion which traveled from the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers to the Pacific Coast in 1804-06. He spent his youth roaming the woods, hunting and observing nature. He volunteered to lead a transcontinental exploration in 1792 which Thomas Jefferson was organizing, but the expedition 7 never happened. Lewis enlisted in the Virginia militia in- stead and became an ensign in the U.S. Army in 1795. Even- tually, he was assigned to a company William Clark com- manded. In 1801 Jefferson contacted Lewis to begin prepa- rations for an expedition. In 1803 Lewis asked Clark to ac- company him; Jefferson approved and instructed Lewis to explore the Missouri River to its source and then follow a westward flowing stream to the Pacific Ocean. Lewis com- manded the expedition and recorded most of the scientific information in the journals. The objective was to secure the fur trade of tribes living in the west and to increase scientific and geographic understanding of the continent. It was also the first time white men crossed the North American conti- nent within the boundaries of the present United States. Af- ter the expedition Jefferson appointed Lewis governor of the Louisiana Territory but he was unsuccessful in the position. Lewis was either murdered or committed suicide at a tavern on the Natchez Trace. William Clark (1770-1838)William Clark assisted Meriwether Lewis on the successful expedition which trav- eled from the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers to the Pacific Coast in 1804-06. Clark was born in Virginia, and his older brothers all fought as officers in the American Revolution. Brigadier General George Rogers Clark, one of his brothers, led forces into the Illinois terri- tory during the war. William served in the Kentucky militia and in the U.S. Army but was tending his parents 9 plantation in Kentucky when Lewis asked him to assist with the explo- ration of the Missouri River. He and Lewis and members of the party left Wood River, Illinois on May 14, 1804, travel- ing up the Missouri River. They reached the Pacific coast in mid-November 1805 and returned to St. Louis in September 1806. After the expedition, Clark was appointed Indian agent and brigadier general of the militia of the Louisiana Terri- tory. For 30 years he negotiated treaties with the Indians of the upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers, relocating many to the Kansas Territory. Henry Ford (1863-1947)Henry Ford helped cre- ate a mobile society by mass producing and marketing the Model T automobile, making it an indispensable part of American life. Through his efforts, the automotive industry became a world-wide phenomenon. Born on a farm near Detroit, Michigan, Ford worked on the farm, at a shipbuild- ing firm, and for a company which serviced steam engines. During the winters he experimented on building his own in- ternal-combustion engines. He drove his first home-built automobile in 1896. The Ford Motor Company was founded in 1903 and he developed the Model T by 1908. Ford used mass production to reduce the price of the Model T, and he worked to perfect the assembly line. He retained complete company control and used it to amass billions of dollars. Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre (1789-1851) Louis Daguerre invented the process to permanently capture im- ages on light-sensitive materials, thus ushering in the age of photography. A native of France, he first earned his living by painting scenery and grounds for theaters. He popularized panoramic paintings 4 large scale, accurate scenes on can- vases on a continuous roll 4 which were exhibited in the Diorama. He often used a camera obscura, a device which reflected a scene onto a canvas that artists then traced. Daguerre sought to fix the image and he worked to invent a light-sensitive material which was permanent. Silver iodide was sensitive to light; mercury exposed the image and com- mon salt fixed the image. He accepted a life-time pension from the French government in exchange for the process, which was publicized by the Academy of Sciences in Paris on August 19, 1839. Others rapidly made improvements to the photographic process but Daguerreotypes remained the principal medium of photography until the 1850s. Daguerreo- types consisted of a silver-coated brass plate exposed to io- dide vapor. The plate was then exposed to light and devel- oped using mercury vapor. The image was fixed using so- dium thiosulfate and was mounted under glass to protect it. Cyrus Hall McCormick (1809-1884) The son of a farmer/blacksmith/inventor, Cyrus McCormick applied his talents to the invention, improvement, manufacture and mar- keting of a successful mechanical reaper, patented in 1834. Reapers, pulled by horses, cut the grain for harvesters to bind and stack in the fields. Prior to adoption of the mechanical reaper, a farmer could only plant as much wheat as he could harvest since ripe wheat was easily ruined. The grain was often lost during harvest if the wheat was overripe, and storms could destroy entire crops. Labor was expensive because it was in great demand. The reaper allowed farmers to plant more wheat because they had the potential to harvest more. McCormick moved to Chicago in 1847 to take advantage of the growing market for reapers as wheat cultivation moved into the plains of the United States and Canada. Reapers and other machines revolutionized grain cultivation and as the international grain trade increased after 1880 mechanization became more important. In 1902 his son Cyrus, Jr. merged McCormick Company with other firms to form International Harvester Company. It competed successfully with a half dozen other farm machinery manufacturers for worldwide distribution up to the late 1980s. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)French chemist Louis Pasteur discovered that heat could kill bacteria which other- wise spoiled liquids including wine and beer. He was the first to understand microscopic organisms, and a paper he published following his research with wine introduced the field of microbiology. He proved that the growth of bacteria resulted from germs in the air and not spontaneous genera- tion. He applied the process of heating liquids to kill bacte- ria to other products including milk. The process is known Grade 3 8 as cpasteurization. d In the 1870s Pasteur applied his efforts toward human diseases, beginning with anthrax, a disease which affected animals and people. He also invented a vac- cine to counter the effects of rabies. Pasteur directed the Pas- teur Institute dedicated to rabies research until his death. Jonas Salk (1914-1995)The American microbiologist who invented the vaccine to prevent polio, Jonas Salk was the oldest child of Jewish immigrants from Poland. He earned his medical degree from the New York University School of Medicine and then worked with Thomas Francis, Jr. at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, funded by a National Research Council fellowship. They developed a ckilled-vi- rus d vaccine to counter type A and B influenza viruses. In 1947 he moved to the Virus Research Laboratory at the Uni- versity of Pittsburgh School of Medicine and built a lab to accommodate his research efforts. By 1952 Salk was ready to test his ckilled-virus d polio vaccine and the trial inocula- tions began in 1954. By the end of 1955, seven million chil- dren were immunized and cases of polio were reduced by 96 percent. Salk 9s approach differed from that of Albert Sabin, the leading advocate of a live-virus polio vaccine. By 1958, Sabin 9s oral vaccine replaced Salk 9s intravenous shot but Salk is still credited as having defeated polio. He founded the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, in 1960, earned the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977, and worked in the field of science until his death. Jane Addams (1860-1935)The first woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize (1931), Jane Addams is more widely known for her role in the establishment of Hull House in Chicago in 1889 and the Settlement House movement in the United States. Motivated by a visit to Toynbee Hall, a settle- ment begun by Oxford men on London 9s East End, Addams and her friend Ellen Gates Starr returned to open Hull House. By 1893 it offered medical care, legal aid, language classes, music, and drama to more than two thousand needy each week. Their activism in support of the poor, immigrants, and women involved Addams in politics. She became the first vice president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association in 1911 and campaigned for Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Party in 1912. To ensure peace and free- dom she helped found the American Civil Liberties Union in 1920 and served as the first president of the Women 9s International League for Peace and Freedom in 1919, a role she continued until her death. Helen Keller (1880-1968)When she was a baby of nineteen months, Helen Keller lost her sight and hearing due to a fever. Her mother refused to let the child give up and sought expert advice and treatment. Anne Sullivan became the lifelong teacher and companion of Keller. The cteacher d taught Helen how to communicate by sign language, read with Braille, and write with a special typewriter. Keller earned a degree from Radcliffe College and published two books by 1903. She was an active suffragette, supported the Ameri- can Foundation for the Blind, and was a symbol of courage and capability to the world. She received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1964. Harriet Tubman (ca. 1820-1913)Escaping to freedom in Philadelphia from Maryland in 1849, Harriet Tubman led more than 300 slaves to freedom over the next ten years. She lived in St. Catherine 9s, Ontario, after 1850 when the Fugitive Slave Act made it easy for slave traders to kidnap free slaves. She also owned property in upstate New York, purchased from abolitionist William E. Seward. Her parents and other refugees lived there. Tubman was a spy and scout for Union troops during the Civil War. After the war she opened the cHome for Indigent Aged Negroes d on her farm in New York and attended the women 9s rights meet- ings in nearby Seneca Falls. The first Black Heritage series postage stamp, released in 1978, depicted Harriet Tubman, a woman who risked everything to liberate slaves. Daniel Boone (1734-1820)Daniel Boone opened the Kentucky frontier to settlement from the east by survey- ing land, opening the Wilderness Road, fighting Indians, and building settlements. Wherever Boone went, settlement fol- lowed. He spent his life exploring the frontier, moving from Kentucky to Missouri territory in 1799. He eventually lost his Missouri land to mismanagement and encroachment, just as he lost his Kentucky holdings. His real life accomplishments gained the status of popular myth during his lifetime because his adventures sym- bolized the changes in America from an independent, rug- ged frontier to a modern, mechanized nation. Boone en- joyed status as a real figure of national significance as well as a mythical or folk hero based on exaggerations of his abili- ties and exploits. David cDavy d Crockett (1786-1836)Born in East Tennessee, Davy Crockett enlisted in the militia in 1813 and fought in the Creek Indian War. He also pursued local and then state and national politics, supporting public land policy to aid western settlement. He disagreed with Andrew Jack- son on several issues including land reform and the Indian removal bill, but he was unable to counter the popular sup- port for Jackson and was not willing to join forces with the Whig opposition. In disgust, he left the upper south and headed to Texas, arriving in San Antonio in early February 1836. He died in the battle of the Alamo on March 6, 1836. The exploits of Davy Crockett, a sharpshooter and hunter, were exaggerated and printed in a series of comic almanacs published from 1836-1856. In this way, his real accomplishments contributed to the formation of a folk myth. Crockett enjoyed status as a figure of regional significance as well as a mythical or folk hero based on exaggerations of his abilities and exploits. Crockett, like Daniel Boone, earned a place in American folklore as a model of independence Grade3 9 and virtue in a frontier setting. Pecos Bill A mythical American folk hero, Pecos Bill was created by Edward O 9Reilly of Century magazine to represent western stamina and values. A cowboy from the Pecos River region of Texas, Pecos Bill was raised by coy- otes, rode a mountain lion, and used a rattlesnake as a lasso. Paul Bunyan A mythical American folk hero, Paul Bunyan represents typical frontier tall tales. The fic- tional exploits of Bunyan in local lumber camps formed an important part of oral tradition in Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and the Northwest before they were published by James MacGillvray in 1910 in a story in the Detroit News-Tribune . Between 1914 and 1944, W. B. Laughead produced the se- ries of pamphlets which made Bunyan a national legend. Robinson Crusoe Robinson Crusoe is the leading character in a novel by Daniel Defoe, published in 1719 ( The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner: Who Lived Eight and Twenty Years, All Alone in an Un-inhabited Island on the Coast of America, Near the Mouth of the Great River of Oroonoque; Having Been Cast on Shore by Shipwreck, Wherein All the Men Per- ished but Himself, With an Account how he was at last as Strangely Deliver 9d by Pyrates. Written by Himself ). Due to the success of the original, Defoe wrote a sequel in the same year, The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe . The tale remains popular because generations of readers recognize Crusoe 9s nature and his quest for social interaction as simi- lar to their own. Grade 3 10 Grade 4 In Grade 4, students examine the history of Texas from the early beginnings to the present within the context of influences of the Western Hemisphere. Historical content focuses on Texas history including the Texas revolution, establishment of the Republic of Texas, and subsequent annexation to the United States. Students discuss important issues, events, and individuals of the 19th and 20th centuries. Stu- dents conduct a thorough study of regions in Texas and the Western Hemisphere that result from human activity and from physical features. A focus on the location, distribution, and patterns of economic activities and of settlement in Texas further enhances the concept of regions. Students describe how early Native Americans in Texas and the Western Hemisphere met their basic economic needs and identify economic motivations for European exploration and colonization and reasons for the estab- lishment of Spanish missions. Students explain how Native Americans governed themselves and iden- tify characteristics of Spanish and Mexican colonial governments in Texas. Students recite and ex- plain the meaning of the Pledge to the Texas Flag. Students identify the contributions of people of various racial, ethnic, and religious groups to Texas and describe the impact of science and technology on life in the state. Students use critical-thinking skills to identify cause-and-effect relationships, com- pare and contrast, and make generalizations and predictions. To support the teaching of the essential knowledge and skills, the use of a variety of rich primary and secondary source material such as biographies; novels; speeches and letters; and poetry, songs, and artworks is encouraged. Selections may include a children 9s biography of Stephen F. Austin. Motivat- ing resources are also available from museums, historical sites, presidential libraries, and local and state preservation societies. Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca (ca. 1490 - ca. 1556) Cabeza de Vaca was an early Spanish explorer, considered the first geographer, historian, and ethnologist of Texas. He sailed with the 1527-28 expedition of Panfilo de Narvaez to the coast of Florida. Separated from the Spanish ships, Narvaez sought to leave Florida by sea. In 1528 Cabeza de Vaca and three others were grounded on an island off the Texas coast, likely San Luis, now known as Follets Island. After being enslaved by the Mariame Indians, and serving as a merchant and medicine man, Cabeza de Vaca and other survivors left the area of Galveston Island, searching for Spanish settlements, in 1534. They reached Culiancan on the Pacific Coast of Mexico in 1536. Cabeza de Vaca and his companions Andres Dorantes de Carranza and Alonso Castillo Maldonado wrote the earliest notes known to exist describing the Indians, landforms, flora, and fauna of Texas. Martín DeLeón (1763-1833)The only Mexican empresario to found a colony in Texas, Martín De León was the son of well-connected Spanish emigrants to present-day Tamaulipas, Mexico. He worked as a merchant and eventually chose to settle in Texas. He petitioned the Mexican government in San Antonio for the right to estab- lish a colony in 1807 but was denied. De León was one of the first trail drivers in Texas, sending his stock overland to New Orleans prior to 1809. The Mexican government fi- nally approved his petition to form a colony in 1824 and he founded the town of Nuestra Señora Guadalupe de Jesús Victoria. He opposed Santa Anna but died in 1833 before the battles for Texas independence. Henry Cisneros (1947- )Henry Cisneros was born in San Antonio, Texas, moved from the area in pursuit 11 of an education but returned to begin his political career. He gained state and national attention for his efforts to solve urban problems. Cisneros earned degrees from Texas A&M University before moving to the northeast. He was a White House Fellow in 1971 and earned an M.A. and Ph.D. in Public Administration from the John F. Kennedy School of Gov- ernment at Harvard University. He returned to San Antonio in 1974 and became the youngest member to serve on the San Antonio city council when elected in 1975. In 1981 he began his first of four terms as mayor of San Antonio. He was committed to improving the economic base of the city by supporting tourism, high-technology, and light manufac- turing. He was unsuccessful in his quest for the nomination as Democratic vice-president in 1984 but he did earn na- tional recognition. President Bill Clinton appointed him Sec- retary of Housing and Urban Development in 1993. Cisneros spent four years focusing HUD efforts toward problems ex- perienced by residents of big cities. In early 1997 he left politics to begin as president and C.E.O. of Univision Com- munications, Inc., the largest Spanish language television broadcaster in the United States. Cleto Rodríguez (1923-1990)Raised in San Marcos and San Antonio, Texas, Cleto Rodríguez joined the army in early 1944 and served in the Philippine Islands in the South Pacific. He earned the Congressional Medal of Honor for his bravery in the battle for Manila. The Medal of Honor, the highest military decoration awarded to members of the U.S. armed forces, recognizes gallantry and bravery in combat. Rodríguez became the fifth Mexican-American so honored, and the first of Mexican descent to receive the award for action in the South Pacific. He joined 14 other Texans, six of whom were Mexican-American, in receiving the medal for their service on all fronts during World War II. He continued in military service to 1970. Moses Austin (1761- 1821)Born in Connecticut, Moses Austin moved to the Missouri territory and established a lead mine and banks to supply and finance settlers in the west. He first proposed a settlement of 300 families in Texas to the Spanish governor of Texas in 1820. Austin died before his dream could be realized but his son, Stephen F. Austin, followed through on his father 9s plan. Stephen F. Austin (1793-1836)Stephen F. Austin is considered the cFather of Texas d due to his continued ef- forts to settle the territory. His father Moses Austin con- tracted with the Spanish government to colonize a portion of northern Mexico. When Moses died in June 1821, the con- tract transferred to the younger Austin. Stephen selected a site for his colony along the Brazos and Colorado rivers and began recruiting families in 1821. Progress was slow because of difficulty in transporting supplies into the area and be- cause of changing Mexican politics. Austin frequently dis- cussed the future of his colony with Mexican officials and he earned their trust. By 1825, 297 families lived in Austin 9s Colony. They were called the cOld Three Hundred. d Austin contin- ued to negotiate with the Mexican government and repre- sent residents. He also secured other land grants. In ten years he helped more than 1,500 families settle in Texas. At first the leadership of Antonio López de Santa Anna pleased Aus- tin, but as Santa Anna assumed more and more control, he limited the freedom of the Texans. Austin supported the or- ganized opposition to the absolute power of Santa Anna. This opposition led to the Texas Revolution. Miriam 8Ma 9 Ferguson (1875-1961)Miriam Ferguson served two terms as governor of Texas. She was inaugurated in 1925, 15 days after Wyoming governor Nellie Tayloe Ross, making her the second female governor in the United States. She married James Edward cJim d Ferguson in 1899. He was elected two terms as governor of Texas but was impeached in 1917 for financial corruption. The Im- peachment Court removed him from office and declared him ineligible to hold any office of honor in Texas. He resigned the day before the Court announced its decision. In an effort to clear his name, and because he could not run under his own name, he ran his wife 9s campaign for governor in 1924. Miriam Amanda ( 8Ma 9) competed for and won the election in 1924 and again in 1932. A moderate Progressive, she sought to improve education and transportation systems. Dur- ing her second and more successful term (1933-5) she sup- ported New Deal legislation, a sales tax to benefit schools, and a corporate income tax. Audie Leon Murphy (1924-1971)When Audie Murphy died in 1971, he was the most decorated combat soldier in U.S. history. He earned 33 awards, citations and decorations, including the Medal of Honor, for his service during World War II campaigns in Sicily, Italy, France, and Germany. After the war he became a successful movie actor starring in 39 films. He wrote 14 songs, two of which were in the top ten on the Hit Parade. He was also an author and poet. He was killed in an airplane crash in 1971. John Tower (1925-1991)In 1961, Tower became the first Republican senator elected in Texas since 1870. This marked the return of two-party politics to the state. He was re-elected to the U.S. Senate in 1966, 1972, and 1978. Dur- ing his 24 years as senator, Tower was involved in the Bank- ing and Currency Committee (later named the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs) and the Armed Services Committee among others. His views influenced domestic and foreign policy. He worked to strengthen na- tional defense, improve transportation systems, and support agriculture, industry and commerce, especially that related to Texas. Tower chaired a special review committee appointed by President Ronald Reagan in 1986 to report on the actions of the National Security Council during the Iran-Contra af- fair. The committee was known as the Tower Commission. Grade 4 12 Tower was killed in a plane crash near New Brunswick, Georgia, on April 5, 1991. Gail Borden, Jr. (1801-1874)An inventor, publisher, surveyor, and founder of the Borden Company, Gail Borden learned from experience that preserved foods were impor- tant to settlers. He was born in New York but he and his family moved to Kentucky, Indiana, Mississippi, and finally into the Texas territory in 1829. A surveyor by training, he helped survey Stephen F. Austin 9s colony, prepared the first topographic map of Texas, designed Galveston, and served as an agent for settlement of that area from 1839 to 1851. In 1835 he published the first issue of his Telegraph and Texas Register and published it in various cities before selling it in 1837. He began inventing in the 1840s and moved to New York to be closer to trade centers. He secured patents for condensed milk in America and Britain in 1856, and he founded the New York Condensed Milk Company (later named Borden 9s) in 1857. Union troops used condensed milk during the Civil War, and sales assured his financial success. He returned to Texas in 1861, built a meat-packing plant in Borden, and supported educational and religious benefiting children. He died in Borden, Texas, but is buried in New York. Lorenzo de Zavala (1788-1836)Lorenzo De Zavala administered a land grant, established a colony in east Texas, and took an active role in Mexican government. He served in the Mexican congress and as a governor of the state of Mexcio prior to 1835 when he became an active sup- porter of the quest for Texas independence. He participated in the Convention of 1836 and served as vice-president in the ad interim or temporary government established during the Revolution. He is credited with designing the first flag of the Republic of Texas. Joseph Glidden (1813-1906)Joseph Glidden in- vented the first commercially successful barbed wire, pat- ented in 1874. He was co-founder of the Barb Fence Com- pany of De Kalb, Illinois, which marketed the wire. Farmers and settlers used it to protect water supplies, crops, and live- stock from free-range cattle. Pattillo Higgins (1863-1955) Known as the cprophet of Spindletop, d Pattillo Higgins formed partnerships with other men who believed that there was oil in the gulf coast region of Texas. In 1892, Higgins, George Carroll, and George Washington O 9Brien formed the Gladys City Oil, Gas, and Manufacturing Company but after several unsuc- cessful wells, enthusiasm lulled. Anthony Francis Lucas eventually discovered oil on land adjacent to Spindletop on January 10, 1901, but Higgins 9s land on the crest of Spindletop proved even more productive. He was a self- taught geologist, draftsman, inventor, cartographer, and en- gineer. Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) Born in Genoa, Italy, Christopher Columbus was a navigator and ex- plorer who planned and led the voyage which landed in the West Indies in 1492. Columbus believed that, because the world was round and because long-distance navigation was technically possible, sailors should be able to head west to arrive in the East. Trade with the East was highly prized; spices and other commodities brought profit to merchants involved in overland trade. An ocean route could increase profit. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain partially funded the expedition at Columbus 9 request. Earlier attempts made by Columbus to secure Por- tuguese funding for voyages to chart new routes to the Far East failed but in 1492, with Spanish support, he set sail with three ships. When he touched land after a 37-day voyage, debarking on present-day San Salvador on October 12, 1492, he believed he had reached the East Indies. He led three more voyages to the New World searching for gold and other trea- sures prior to his death in 1506. He established the first per- manent colony in Cuba during his second voyage in 1493, deposited more settlers near Venezuela in 1494, and com- pleted his fourth voyage in 1503. Though Columbus never made the financial gains he envisioned, European nations realized the potential of the new continent as a source of riches and agricultural commodities and competed for colo- nization rights. The significance of Columbus 9 voyage is re- membered every Columbus Day, a federal holiday on the second Monday of October. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado (1510-1554) Francisco Coronado opened the southwestern portion of North America to Spanish colonization and settlement. Born in Spain into a prominent family, de Coronado first sailed to the New World in 1535, arriving in Mexico City. He was appointed as governor of the mining areas in northwestern Mexico in 1538. In attempts to discover the riches of the New World for Spain, he led an exploration in search of the Seven Cities of Cíbola and Quivira and journeyed through territory in present-day Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, Okla- homa, and Kansas in 1540-42. Sam Houston (1793-1863)Sam Houston provided leadership for more than 25 years in Texas, commanding the army, and serving as president of the Republic, U.S. senator, and then governor. He was already a notable American when he came to Texas in 1832. Born in Virginia, he lived for several years in Tennessee learning from the Cherokee. He served in the army under the command of General Andrew Jackson. After his military service he was a representative to the Tennessee Congress and served as governor. Because of his knowledge of and appreciation for the Cherokee, he of- ten represented the United States in attempts to settle dis- putes. Upon his arrival in Texas, Houston 9s experience with federal and state government proved valuable as delegates to the Texas Convention of 1836 worked to draft a constitu- tion and declare independence from Mexico. Houston left Grade 4 13 the convention early to command the Texas army against Santa Anna 9s advancing Mexican troops. Texans proclaimed Houston the hero of the Battle of San Jacinto during which Santa Anna was captured and his Mexican army routed. The Treaties of Velasco resulted. Afterward, Houston became the first elected president of the Republic of Texas in 1836 and was reelected in 1841. Hous- ton struggled to solve the problem of a growing national debt. Eventually the Republic sought support from the United States and Houston supported annexation of Texas by the United States. Others wanted Texas to remain a republic. Texas became the twenty-eighth state in late 1845. Sam Hous- ton served as a U.S. senator from Texas and then was elected governor in 1859. He opposed secession from the union and left the governor 9s office after Texans voted overwhelmingly to secede in January 1861. Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar (1798-1859)In 1836, Mirabeau Lamar was elected the first vice president of the Republic of Texas and was elected president the fol- lowing term, serving 1838-1841. In contrast to Sam Hous- ton, Lamar favored remaining a republic and opposed an- nexation to the United States. Under his administration the public debt of Texas grew. Lamar believed that the Texas border included Santa Fe, New Mexico. This gave the Re- public access to trade with the far west through New Mexico, thereby securing extra income. Mexican officials disagreed and this continued the hard feelings between Mexico and Texas. Lamar relocated the Texas capital from Houston to the growing town of Austin to be closer to the interior devel- opment of the state. Lamar also stressed the need for public education in Texas. Barbara Jordan (1934-1996)Born in Houston, Bar- bara Jordan was the first African-American congresswoman from the south. She was supported by President Lyndon Johnson during her campaign as a representative from Texas to the U.S. House. She earned national recognition during the Watergate hearings in 1974 which investigated President Richard Nixon 9s election campaign and was named Time magazine 9s Woman of the Year in 1975. She was a professor of public service in the Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs at the University of Texas in Austin and remained in public service until her death on January 17, 1996. Anson Jones (1798-1858)The last president of the Republic of Texas, Anson Jones was elected in 1844. He retired to his farm near Washington-on-the Brazos follow- ing the annexation of Texas by the United States. Jones was a doctor from Brazoria who supported Sam Houston and Houston 9s efforts to stabilize the Texas economy and keep peace with the Native Americans. René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle (1643- 1687)Born in Normandy, Cavelier preferred his noble title, Sieur de la Salle. He immigrated to New France and secured a seigniory (a large estate) along the St. Lawrence River. He sold it to invest in the Canadian fur trade in an attempt to make his fortune. Sailing for France, he descended the Mississippi River to its delta in 1682, established a trad- ing monopoly in the Mississippi Valley, and secured Louisi- ana for France. Returning from France in 1684, La Salle led an expedition seeking the mouth of the Mississippi. The ex- plorers sailed past the delta and landed in Matagorda Bay (Texas) instead. They established Fort St. Louis in 1685 and claimed the area for the French. Thus, the French flag is one of the six flags which has flown over Texas. Discord among the members of the expedition led to La Salle 9s assassina- tion on March 19, 1687. Most of those remaining eventually traveled north on the Mississippi River to return to Canada. Grade 4 14 Grade 5 In Grade 5, students learn about the history of the United States from its early beginnings to the present with a focus on colonial times through the 20th century. Students recite and explain the meaning of the Pledge of Allegiance. Students examine the importance of effective leadership in a democratic society and identify important leaders in the national government. Students examine fundamental rights guar- anteed in the Bill of Rights. Students describe customs and celebrations of various racial, ethnic, and religious groups in the nation and identify the contributions of famous inventors and scientists. Stu- dents use critical-thinking skills, including sequencing, categorizing, and summarizing information and drawing inferences and conclusions. To support the teaching of the essential knowledge and skills, the use of a variety of rich primary and secondary source material such as biographies; novels; speeches and letters; and poetry, songs, and artworks is encouraged. Selections may include Yankee Doodle. Motivating resources are also avail- able from museums, historical sites, presidential libraries, and local and state preservation societies. Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) Thomas Edison, one of the greatest inventors of all time, received more than 1,300 patents for a range of items including the automatic telegraph machine, the phonograph, improvements to the light bulb, a modernized telephone, and motion pic- ture equipment. He concentrated on electrical inventions and opened his first cinvention factory d in Newark, New Jersey, in 1870. In 1876 he opened his lab in Menlo Park and while there his workers developed and he patented the incandes- cent light bulb, a transmitter for the telephone and the pho- nograph, his favorite invention. He operated the world 9s first electric power station on Pearl Street in New York City, opened in 1882. By 1887 he expanded operations again, to West Orange, New Jersey, where workers averaged one pat- ented invention every five days. Cesar Chávez (1924-1997)Cesar Chávez was a mi- grant farm worker who sought to improve the lives of other migrant workers. He served as national director of the Com- munity Service Organization before resigning in 1962 to fo- cus on organizing a union for farm workers. He called for non-violent struggles for justice and used strikes, boycotts and other forms of civil disobedience to improve conditions for migrant workers. Eventually strikes and boycotts caused 26 grape growers in California to recognize the United Farm Workers union in 1970 but growers continued to break con- tracts. Chávez provided leadership for 30 years, protesting violence and urging cooperation between growers and work- ers. The union continues to protect the rights of migrant laborers from unfair treatment on the part of employers. General Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) Dwight David Eisenhower served his country as a military leader, and as president from 1952 to 1960. Born in Texas, Eisenhower was raised in Abilene, Kansas. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and married Mamie Doud in 1916. Eisenhower served as General Douglas MacArthur 9s senior assistant in the Philippines when MacArthur was the army 9s chief of staff. MacArthur considered him the most capable officer in the army. General Eisenhower commanded Allied forces in Europe during World War II. He led the British- American invasion of North Africa which defeated Rommel 9s Africa Korps in 1943. On June 6, 1944, he commanded Al- lied forces on D-Day. He was appointed president of Co- lumbia University in 1948 but was recalled to active mili- tary duty in 1950 to lead forces of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). He retired from the army in 1952 to make a bid for the Republican Party nomination for president. He was elected to the first of two terms. Americans hoped he would end the fighting in South Korea against communist China and North Korea. He did negotiate a peace settlement signed in 1953 but the fear of communism remained high in the United States. The cold war between the U.S.S.R. and the 15 United States continued throughout his administration as he supported a foreign policy which encouraged cooperation and not conflict. He favored gradual domestic change. He ordered troops into Little Rock, Arkansas, to keep peace when the high school racially integrated, and he signed the civil rights acts of 1957 and 1960. Rosa Parks (1913- )Born in Tuskegee, Alabama, Rosa Parks grew up on her grandparents 9 farm near Mont- gomery and attended high school and college in the city. She and her husband were both active members of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). During a time when public transportation was legally segregated, she was arrested on December 1, 1955, when she refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man. Her actions prompted black church and business leaders to conduct a boycott of the Montgomery bus company, which began December 5, 1956. On December 21 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that segregation on city buses was unconstitu- tional. Martin Luther King, Jr., the new minister at the Dex- ter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, participated in the December 5 meeting, an event which helped launch his civil rights career. General Colin L. Powell (1937- )On August 10, 1989, General Colin Powell became the first African-Ameri- can chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Commissioned a 2nd Lieutenant in the U.S. Army in 1958, Powell received several commendations and decorations. He commanded the 2nd Brigade of the 101st Airborne Division from 1976 to 1977 and was the senior military assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense from 1979 to 1981 and again from 1983 to 1986. He served as a deputy assistant and then as an assis- tant to President Ronald Reagan, advising on National Se- curity Affairs from 1987 to 1989, at which point he assumed the chairmanship of the Joint Chief s of Staff. His autobiog- raphy My American Journey (1995) chronicles his experi- ences as a ranking military official and political advisor. William Penn (1644-1718)William Penn estab- lished a colony in Pennsylvania as a refuge for Quakers and a place where they could create a government based on their own standards. Born in London into a merchant family, Penn joined the Quakers, also known as the Religious Society of Friends, in 1666. The Friends believed in direct guidance from the Holy Spirit, did not recognize the authority of an ordained ministry, believed in simple dress, and opposed war. Penn became a leading Quaker in England, preaching at meet- ings, publishing religious tracts, and supporting toleration of those who dissented from the teachings of the Church of England. He secured a land grant from the King of England in 1681, and the King called the area cPennsylvania d or Penn 9s Woodland. Penn aggressively advertised his land grant and attempted to treat Native Americans and squatters from other colonies residing in the grant fairly. He rarely visited the colony and lived there only a few years which caused residents of the colony to under appreciate his role in the colony 9s development. He supported freedom of wor- ship, welcomed immigrants, and did not require residents to serve in the militia. John Smith (1580-1631)John Smith was born to a yeoman farm family in England. He participated in the Christian crusade against Islam in 1600. In 1606 he enlisted in the colonization effort of the Virginia Company to estab- lish a colony in North America. Smith was one of the seven- member resident council appointed to rule the colony. He ensured the survival of Jamestown by instilling discipline into the colonists and providing leadership. He led expedi-

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